tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-56372536728597766572024-03-12T21:49:20.004-07:00Islamic Studies 2Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.comBlogger26125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-74426161078325970432011-12-16T21:06:00.000-08:002011-12-16T21:06:34.850-08:00Raghib Asfahany Thought About Tafsir and Ta'wil<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kitaabun.com/shopping3/images/HilyatAlAwliya.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="267" src="http://kitaabun.com/shopping3/images/HilyatAlAwliya.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
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<div class="almost_half_cell" id="gt-res-content"><div dir="ltr" style="zoom: 1;"><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="A.">A. </span><span title="Pendahuluan">Preliminary<br />
</span><span title="Al-Qur'an adalah teks kebahasaan yang dapat disebut sebagai teks inti (core texts) dalam sejarah peradaban Arab.">The Qur'an is a linguistic text which can be termed as the core text (core texts) in the history of Arab civilization. </span><span title="Bukanlah suatu simplifikasi jika dikatakan bahwa peradaban Arab-Islam adalah “peradaban teks” ini tidak berarti bahwa tekslah yang membangun peradaban.">Not a simplification to say that the Arab-Islamic civilization is "civilization text" does not mean that tekslah that build civilization. </span><span title="Yang membangun dan menegakkan peradaban adalah dialektika manusia dengan realitas di satu pihak dan dialognya dengan teks di pihak lain.[1]">That establishing and enforcing human civilization is the dialectic with reality on the one hand and dialogue with the text on the other. [1]<br />
</span><span title="Al-Raghib al-Asfahani adalah salah seorang pemikir abad pertengahan yang berupaya memahami al-Qur'an lewat pendalaman terhadap bahasa arab.">Al-Raghib al-Asfahani was one of the medieval thinkers who seek to understand the Qur'an over the deepening of the Arabic language. </span><span title="Melalui karyanya mu'jam al-Mufradat li Alfaz al-Qur'an, beliau berpendapat bahwa sarana yang paling utama dalam memahami al-Qur'an adalah lewat penguasaan terhadap bahasa.">Through his work Mu'jam al-li Mufradat Alfaz al-Qur'an, he believes that means the most important in understanding the Qur'an is through mastery of the language. </span><span title="Adapun makalah ini akan lebih difokuskan pada pandangan al-Asfahani tentang al-Qur'an, Tafsir dan Ta'wil.">As this paper will be focused on the views of al-Asfahani about the Qur'an, Tafseer and ta'wil.<br />
</span><span title="A.">A. </span><span title="Mengenal al-Raghib al-Asfahani">Knowing al-Raghib al-Asfahani<br />
</span><span title="Sejauh penelusuran yang penulis lakukan belum ditemukan biografi secara lengkap yang membahas tentang kepribadian, sejarah kehidupannya maupun basic intelektual al-Raghib al-Asfahani.">As far as tracking the authors do not find a full biography that discusses about the personality, life and basic intellectual history of al-Raghib al-Asfahani. </span><span title="Satu-satunya rujukan utama yang penulis gunakan adalah melalui karyanya mu'jam al-Mufradat li alfaz al-Qur'an yang ditahqiq oleh Nadim Mara 'Usyaily.">The only major references that I use is through his work Mu'jam Mufradat li alfaz al-Quran al-Nadim ditahqiq by Mara 'Usyaily. </span><span title="Sehingga informasi yang didapat sebatas nama dan tempat tinggal, dan karya-karyanya yang belum sempat penulis jumpai.">So that the information obtained in name and place of residence, and his works that have not had time to meet the author.<br />
</span><span title="Nama lengkapnya adalah Abu al-Qasim al-Husain bin Muhammad bin al-Mufadhal.[2] Al-Asfahani adalah nisbah dari tempat asalnya yaitu kota Asfahan.">His full name was Abu al-Qasim al-Husayn ibn Muhammad ibn al-Mufadhal. [2] Al-Asfahani is the ratio of the original place Asfahan city. </span><span title="Akan tetapi beliau hidup di kota Bagdad.">However, he lived in the city of Baghdad. </span><span title="Tidak diketahui kapan beliau lahir.">It is not known when he was born. </span><span title="Yang pasti, melalui karya-karya yang dihasilkan dapat disimpulkan bahwa beliau adalah seorang ahli sejarah dan sastra, pakar dalam ilmu balaghah (retorika) dan sya'ir.">To be sure, through the works produced can be inferred that he is an expert on the history and literature, an expert in the science Balaghah (rhetoric) and sya'ir.<br />
</span><span title="Keahliannya di bidang bahasa dan segala cabangnya tampak dalam uraian kosa kata lafaz-lafaz dan pengertian-pengertian yang ditunjukkannya menurut letak kata-kata dalam rangkaian kalimat">His expertise in the field of language and all its branches appear in the description-lafadz lafadz vocabulary and notions which showed according to the location of the words in the sentence range<br />
</span><span title="Dalam kajiannya ini, beliau semata-mata memfokuskan pada hakekat al-Qur'an dan wataknya sebagai teks bahasa.">In this study, he focused solely on the nature and character of the Koran as a text language. </span><span title="Ini berarti bahwa kajian ini memperlakukan al-Qur'an sebagai kitab agung berbahasa Arab, dan pengaruh sastrawinya yang indah.">This means that this study treats the Qur'an as a book of great Arabic, and the influence sastrawinya beautiful.<br />
</span><span title="Bagi al-Asfahani, al-Qur'an merupakan kitab artistika Arab yang sakral.">For al-Asfahani, the Qur'an is the sacred book of the Arab Artistika. </span><span title="Setelah menuntaskan kajiannya pada aspek sastrawi tersebut, al-Asfahani mengarahkannya pada kepada kandungan ayat dengan mengambil dan menukil apa saja yang dikehendakinya dan sesuai dengan bahasan.">Having completed studies on the literary aspect, al-Asfahani aimed at the content and quoting verses by taking whatever he wanted and in accordance with the discussion.</span><span title="Adapun beberapa karya al-Raghib al-Asfahani adalah sebagai berikut[3]:">As for some of the work of al-Raghib al-Asfahani is as follows [3]:<br />
<br />
</span><span title="a.">a. </span><span title="Risalah Munabbihah ‘ala Fawa’id al-Qur’an.">Minutes of Munabbihah 'ala al-Qur'an Fawa'id.<br />
</span><span title="Tafdhil al-Nasy'ataini wa Tahshil al-Sa'adataini (yang dicetak di Beirut pada tahun 1319H).">Tafdhil Nasy'ataini wa al-al-Sa'adataini Tahshil (which is printed in Beirut in the year 1319H).<br />
</span><span title="c.">c. </span><span title="Al-Akhlaq.">Al-Akhlaq.<br />
</span><span title="d.">d. </span><span title="Adab al-Syathranj.">Adab al-Syathranj.<br />
</span><span title="e.">e. </span><span title="Afanin al-Balaghah,">Afanin al-Balagha,<br />
</span><span title="f.">f. </span><span title="Tahqiq al-Bayan (yang merupakan kajian komprehensif tentang berbagai disiplin ilmu, yaitu bidang kajian filsafat, al-aqa'id, al-akhlaq, Bahasa, al-Kitabah, dan ulum al-awa'il).">Verification of al-Bayan (which is a comprehensive study of various disciplines, namely the field of study of philosophy, al-aqa'id, al-morality, language, al-Kitabah, and ulum al-awa'il).<br />
</span><span title="g.">g. </span><span title="Kitab fi al-Tafsir.">Book fi al-Tafsir.<br />
</span><span title="h.">h. </span><span title="Kitab al-Dzari’ah ila Makarim al-syari’ah.">Kitab al-Dzari'ah ila Makarim al-Shari'ah.<br />
</span><span title="i.">i. </span><span title="Muqaddimah Li Tafsiir al-Qur’an">Li Tafsiir Muqaddimah al-Qur'an<br />
</span><span title="C.">C. </span><span title="Pandangan al-Asfahani tentang al-Qur’an.">The views of al-Asfahani of the Qur'an.<br />
</span><span title="Al-Asfahani adalah seorang pemikir yang sangat handal dalam bidang al-Qur'an.">Al-Asfahani is a thinker who is very reliable in the field of the Koran. </span><span title="Diantara pemikirannya tentang al-Qur'an tampak pada ayat-ayat serta ungkapan yang dipakai dalam mukaddimah mu'jam Mufradat li alfaz al-Qur'an.">Among his thoughts on the Qur'an appears in the verses and phrases used in mukaddimah Mu'jam Mufradat alfaz li al-Qur'an. </span><span title="Diantaranya adalah sebagai berikut:">Among them are the following:<br />
<br />
</span><span title="· انا انزلناه قرأنا عربيا لعلكم تعقلون">· انا انزلناه قرأنا عربيا لعلكم تعقلون<br />
</span><span title="· وهذا كتاب مصدق لسانا عربيا لينذر الذين ظلموا">· وهذا كتاب مصدق لسانا عربيا لينذر الذين ظلموا<br />
</span><span title="· إنه لقرأن كريم في كتاب مكنون لايمسه إلا المطهرون">· إنه لقرأن كريم في كتاب مكنون لايمسه إلا المطهرون<br />
</span><span title="· ولو أن ما في الارض من شجرة اقلام والبحر يمده من بعده سبعة ابحر ما نفدت كلمات الله">· ولو أن ما في الارض من شجرة اقلام والبحر يمده من بعده سبعة ابحر ما نفدت كلمات الله<br />
</span><span title="· قل هوللذين امنوا هدا وشفاء والذين لا يؤمنون في اذانهم وقروهو عليهم عمى">· قل هوللذين امنوا هدا وشفاء والذين لا يؤمنون في اذانهم وقروهو عليهم عمى<br />
</span><span title="· يتلوا صحفا مطهرة فيهاكتب قيمة">· يتلوا صحفا مطهرة فيهاكتب قيمة<br />
</span><span title="Sebelum menguraikan pandangan Al-Asfahani mengenai al-Qur'an, menurut penulis, bukan hal yang mudah membuat batasan definisi al-Qur'an secara logika dengan mengelompokkan segala jenis, bagian-bagian serta ketentuan-ketentuan khusus, mempunyai genus, differentia dan propium">Before outlining the views of Al-Asfahani of the Koran, according to the authors, not an easy thing to limit the definition of the Koran logically by grouping all kinds, parts and special provisions, has a genus, differentia and propium </span><span title=", sehingga definisi al-Qur'an mempunyai batasan yang benar-benar konkrit.">, so the definition of the Koran has a limitation that actually concrete.<br />
</span><span title="Adapun definisi yang konkrit untuk al-Qur'an ialah menghadirkannya dalam pikiran atau dalam realita misalnya menunjuk al-Qur'an sebagai bacaan yang tertulis dalam mushaf atau terbaca dengan lisan.">As for a concrete definition for the Qur'an is present it in mind or in reality, for example pointing reading the Koran as written in the Mushaf or legible with oral. </span><span title="Dengan demikian al-Qur'an adalah bismillahi ar-rahmani al-Rahim, ahhamdu lillahi rabbi al-alamin, dan seterusnya sampai dengan min al-jinnati wa al-nas.[4]">Thus Qur'an is Bismillahi ar-Rahim al-loving, ahhamdu lillahi rabbi al-alamin, and so on until the min al-jinnati wa al-nas. [4]<br />
</span><span title="Para ulama menyebutkan definisi al-Qur'an yang mendekati maknanya dan membedakannya dari yang lain dengan menyebutkan bahwa, Qur'an adalah Kalam atau Firman Allah yang diturunkan kepada Nabi Muhammad, yang pembacaannya merupakan suatu ibadah.">The scholars mention the definition of al-Qur'an that approached significance and distinguish it from the others by saying that, the Qur'an is the Word or the Word of God revealed to Prophet Muhammad, who was reading as worship. </span><span title="Dalam definisi tersebut terdapat batasan “kalamullah”, hanya diturunkan kepada Nabi Muhammad, bukan nabi-nabi yang lain, serta pembacaannya merupakan suatu ibadah, ini mengecualikan hadis ahad dan hadis qudsi.[5]">Within that definition there are limits "kalamullah", only revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, not the other prophets, as well as reading as worship, this excludes ahad hadith and hadith qudsi. [5]<br />
</span><span title="Pada dasarnya al-Asfahani juga mempunyai batasan yang sama dengan pendapat diatas, di mana kata al-Qur'an mempunyai kekhususkan atau batasan kitab yang hanya diturunkan kepada Nabi Muhammad.">Basically, al-Asfahani also have the same limitations with the above opinion, in which the words of the Koran have kekhususkan or limit the book which is only revealed to the Prophet Muhammad. </span><span title="Dengan pengertian ini dapat membedakan kitab-kitab lainnya, seperti, Taurat, Injil dan Zabur.">With this understanding can distinguish other books, such as, the Torah, the Gospels and Psalms.<br />
</span><span title="Adapun untuk merumuskan pandangan Al-Asfahani tentang al-Qur'an perlu dikaji terlebih dahulu kupasan akar kata dari huruf qa, ra', 'a.">As for Al-Asfahani formulate views about the Koran should be studied first peeling the root word from the letters qa, ra ',' a. </span><span title="Qara'a mempunyai arti mengumpulkan dan menghimpun, dan qira'ah berarti menghimpun huruf-huruf dan kata-kata satu dengan yang lain dalam suatu ucapan yang tersusun.[6] Qur'an pada mulanya seperti qira'ah, yaitu Masdar (infinitive)">Qara'a have the meanings gather and collect, and qira'ah means collecting letters and words with one another in a structured speech. [6] Quran at first like qira'ah, the Masdar (infinitive) </span><span title="dari kata qara'a, qira'atan, qur'anan.">of said qara'a, qira'atan, qur'anan. </span><span title="Al-Asfahani mengutip ayat">Al-Asfahani quoting<br />
</span><span title="إن عليناجمعه وقرأنه فإذا قرأناه فاتبع قرأنه">إن عليناجمعه وقرأنه فإذا قرأناه فاتبع قرأنه<br />
</span><span title="Artinya: “Sesungguhnya atas tanggungan Kamilah mengumpulkannya (dalam dadamu) dan (membuatmu pandai) membacanya.">It means: "Verily, We're the guys at the expense of collecting it (in your chest) and (makes you smarter) to read. </span><span title="Apabila Kami telah selesai membacakannya maka ikutilah bacaannya.">When we have finished to read it so follow his reading. </span><span title="(Q.S. al-Qiyamah (75): 17-18.)">(Q.S. al-Qiyamah (75): 17-18.)<br />
</span><span title="Qur'anahu disini berarti qira'atuhu (bacaannya/cara membacanya).">Qur'anahu here means qira'atuhu (reading / how to read it). </span><span title="Jadi kata itu adalah Masdar wazan (konjungsi, tashrif) dari lafaz “fu'lan” dengan fokal “u” seperti “ghufran” dan “syukran“.">So it is Masdar wazan (conjunctions, tashrif) from lafadz "fu'lan" with focal "u" like "ghufran" and "syukran". </span><span title="Menurut Al-Asfahani, lafaz qira'atuhu, qur'an, qira'atan dan qur'anan, mempunyai arti yang sama.">According to Al-Asfahani, lafadz qira'atuhu, qur'an, qira'atan and qur'anan, has the same meaning. </span><span title="Sedangkan al-Qur'an dikhususkan sebagai nama bagi kitab yang diturunkan kepada Nabi Muhammad, sehingga Qur'an menjadi nama khas kitab itu.[7]">While the Koran is devoted as a name for the book revealed to Prophet Muhammad, so typical of the Quran to be the name of the book. [7]<br />
</span><span title="Di samping itu, pandangan Al-Asfahani tentang al-Qur'an juga dapat dilihat dalam uraiannya tentang beberapa nama dan sifat-sifat al-Qur'an.">In addition, the views of Al-Asfahani of the Qur'an can also be seen in his description of some of the names and attributes of the Koran. </span><span title="Maka penulis akan menguraikan sekilas tentang ungkapan Al-Asfahani mengenai nama-nama al-Qur'an.[8] Di antara nama-nama al-Qur'an adalah sebagai berikut:">Then the author will outline a glimpse of Al-Asfahani expression of the names of the Qur'an. [8] Among the names of the Qur'an are as follows:<br />
</span><span title="1.">1. </span><span title="Al-Qur’an">Al-Quran<br />
</span><span title="إن هذا القران يهدي للتي هي أقوم ويبشر المؤمنين الذين يعملون الصالحات أن لهم أجرا كبيرا">إن هذا القران يهدي للتي هي أقوم ويبشر المؤمنين الذين يعملون الصالحات أن لهم أجرا كبيرا<br />
</span><span title="Artinya: “Sesungguhnya Al Qur'an ini memberikan petunjuk kepada (jalan) yang lebih lurus dan memberi khabar gembira kepada orang-orang Mu'min yang mengerjakan amal saleh bahwa bagi mereka ada pahala yang besar.”">It means: "Verily this Qur'an provides guidance to the (road) is more straight and give khabar happy Mu'min to people who do good deeds that for them there is great reward."<br />
</span><span title="2.">2. </span><span title="Al-Kitab">The Book<br />
</span><span title="لقد أنزلنا إليكم كتابا فيه ذكركم أفلا تعقلون">لقد أنزلنا إليكم كتابا فيه ذكركم أفلا تعقلون<br />
</span><span title="Artinya: “Sesungguhnya telah Kami turunkan kepada kamu sebuah kitab yang di dalamnya terdapat sebab-sebab kemuliaan bagimu.">It means: "Verily We have sent down to you a book in which there are reasons for you glory. </span><span title="Maka apakah kamu tiada memahaminya.”">Will ye not then understand. "<br />
</span><span title="3.">3. </span><span title="Al-Furqan.">Al-Furqan.<br />
</span><span title="تبارك الذي نزل الفرقان على عبده ليكون للعالمين نذيرا">تبارك الذي نزل الفرقان على عبده ليكون للعالمين نذيرا<br />
</span><span title="Artinya: “Maha Suci Allah yang telah menurunkan Al-Furqaan (Al Qur'an) kepada hamba-Nya, agar dia menjadi pemberi peringatan kepada seluruh alam”">Translation: "Blessed is He who sent down Al-Furqaan (Qur'an) to His servant, that he became a warner to the whole of nature"<br />
</span><span title="4.">4. </span><span title="Al-Zikr">Al-Zikr<br />
</span><span title="إنا نحن نزلنا الذكر وإنا له لحافظون">إنا نحن نزلنا الذكر وإنا له لحافظون<br />
</span><span title="Artinya: “Sesungguhnya Kami-lah yang menurunkan Al Qur'an, dan sesungguhnya Kami benar-benar memeliharanya.”">It means: "Verily, We sent down the Qur'an, and We will truly preserve it."<br />
</span><span title="5.">5. </span><span title="Al-Tanzil">Al-Tanzil<br />
</span><span title="وإنه لتنزيل رب العالمين">وإنه لتنزيل رب العالمين<br />
</span><span title="Artinya: “Dan sesungguhnya Al Qur'an ini benar-benar diturunkan oleh Tuhan semesta alam”">It means: "And Verily this is a Revelation from the Lord of hosts"<br />
</span><span title="Dari berbagai indikasi diatas, penulis dapat merumuskan pandangan al-Asfahani mengenai al-Qur'an adalah kitab agung yang diturunkan oleh Allah kepada Nabi Muhammad dengan bahasa Arab, serta menjadi petunjuk bagi umat manusia, karena keluasan muatannya.[9]">From various indications above, the writer can formulate the view of al-Asfahani about the Koran is a great book that revealed by Allah to the Prophet Muhammad in Arabic, as well as a guidance for mankind, because the breadth of its cargo. [9]<br />
</span><span title="Perhatian Al-Asfahani terhadap al-Qur'an juga terlihat dalam beberapa kupasan kata-kata yang berhubungan dengan ilmu-ilmu al-Qur'an.">Al-Asfahani attention to the Qur'an also seen in some paring of words related to the sciences of the Qur'an. </span><span title="Misalnya tentang:">For example about:<br />
</span><span title="1.">1. </span><span title="Muhkam dan Mutasyabih.">Muhkam and Mutasyabih.<br />
</span><span title="Meskipun tidak secara panjang lebar beliau mengemukakan konsepsi tentang muhkam dan Mutasyabih, namun ketika mengupas tentang akar kata Syabaha dan hakama, dapat diketahui bahwa pandangan beliau tentang muhkam adalah sebagai berikut:">Although not at length he put forward a conception of muhkam and Mutasyabih, but when it investigated the root word Syabaha and hakama, it is known that his views about muhkam are as follows:<br />
</span><span title="Menurut bahasa, muhkam berasal dari kata-kata hakamtu al-dabbata wa ahkamtu yang artinya saya menahan binatang itu.">According to the language, muhkam derived from the words hakamtu wa al-dabbata ahkamtu which means I hold the animal. </span><span title="Kata al-hukmu berarti memutuskan antara dua hal atau dua perkara.">The word al-hukmu means deciding between two things or two cases. </span><span title="Maka hakim adalah orang yang mencegah yang zalim dan memisahkan antara yang hak dengan yang batil dan antara kebenaran dan kebohongan.">Then the judge is a person who prevent the unjust and separating between the right with falsehood and between truth and falsehood. </span><span title="Dikatakan hakamtu al-sqfihi wa ahkamtuhu artinya saya memegang kedua tangan orang dungu.">It said al-sqfihi hakamtu ahkamtuhu wa means I hold both hands of fools. </span><span title="Juga dikatakan hakamtu al-dabbata wa ahkamtuha, artinya saya memasang hikmah pada binatang itu.[10] Hikmah dalam ungkapan ini berarti kendali yang dipasang pada leher, ini mengingat bahwa ia berfungsi untuk mencegahnya agar tidak bergerak secara liar.">Also said to be al-dabbata hakamtu ahkamtuha wa, which means I put on the animal's wisdom. [10] Wisdom in this phrase means controls mounted on the neck, this given that it serves to prevent him from moving in the wild. </span><span title="Dari pengertian inilah lahir kata hikmah, karena ia dapat mencegah pemiliknya dari hal-hal yang tidak pantas.">From this sense the word was born wisdom, because it can prevent the owner of the things that are not appropriate.<br />
</span><span title="Muhkam berarti sesuatu yang dikokohkan.">Muhkam means something that is affirmed. </span><span title="Ihkam al-kalam berarti mengokohkan perkataan dengan memisahkan berita yang benar dari yang salah, dan urusan yang lurus dari yang sesat.">Ihkam al-kalam means affirming words by separating the news right from wrong, and things are straight from the misguided. </span><span title="muhkam adalah sesuatu yang tidak mengandung syubhat di dalamnya baik secara lafaz maupun makna.">muhkam is something that does not contain within it doubtful whether lafadz and meaning. </span><span title="Jadi ayat-ayat yang muhkam adalah ayat yang secara lahir sudah jelas dan pasti sehingga tidak menimbulkan kesalahpahaman atau membutuhkan pemahaman atau pemikiran yang mendalam.">So muhkam verses are verses that are born are clear and definite so as not to cause misunderstanding or require an understanding or deep thought.<br />
</span><span title="Adapun Mutasyabih secara bahasa berarti tasyabuh, yakni bila salah satu dari dua hal serupa dengan yang lain.[11] Dan syubhah ialah keadaan di mana salah satu dari dua hal itu tidak dapat dibedakan dari yang lain karena adanya kemiripan di antara keduanya secara konkrit maupun abstrak">The Mutasyabih tasyabuh literally means, ie, when one of two similar things with others. [11] And syubhah is a state in which one of two things can not be distinguished from the others because of the resemblance between them in a concrete and abstract </span><span title=".[12] Jadi ayat yang Mutasyabih adalah ayat yang bermakna samar atau tidak pasti, yakni, ayat-ayat yang masih membutuhkan pemahaman dan pemikiran yang mendalam, sehingga sangat interpretable.[13]">. [12] So the verse is the verse that meaningful Mutasyabih vague or uncertain, that is, the verses that still requires a deep understanding and thinking, so it is interpretable. [13]<br />
</span><span title="Adapun ayat-ayat yang Mutasyabih dapat dibagi juga menjadi 3 bagian.">As for the verses Mutasyabih can be divided also into 3 parts. </span><span title="Yaitu; pertama, Mutasyabih dari segi lafaznya saja (Mutasyabih Lafzi), kedua, Mutasyabih dari segi maknanya saja (Mutasyabih Maknawi), dan ketiga, Mutasyabih lafaz sekaligus maknanya (Mutasyabih lafzan wa ma'nan).">Namely: first, in terms of lafaznya Mutasyabih only (Mutasyabih Lafzi), second, in terms of their meaning alone Mutasyabih (Mutasyabih meaningful), and third, Mutasyabih lafadz well meaning (Mutasyabih lafzan wa ma'nan). </span><span title="Adapun Mutasyabih lafzi dibagi menjadi 2, pertama, yaitu makna yang kembali pada lafaz-lafaz tunggal.">The Mutasyabih lafzi divided into 2, first, the meaning of the return on lafadz single-lafadz. </span><span title="Adakalanya disebabkan oleh keasingan lafaz tersebut sehingga tidak mempunyai kemungkinan terhadap arti yang lain, Misalnya kata al-Abu, yaziffuna.">Sometimes due to the strangeness lafadz so do not have the possibility of other meanings, for example the word al-Ash, yaziffuna. </span><span title="Adakalanya disebabkan oleh musyarakah, misalnya lafaz al-yadi dan al-'aini.">Sometimes caused by Musharaka, for example lafadz al-yadi and al-'aini. </span><span title="Kedua, makna yang kembali pada jumlah kalimat yang .tersusun.">Second, the meaning of the return on the number of sentences. Composed. </span><span title="Dalam hal ini dibagi menjadi 3 bagian, pertama adalah disebabkan oleh ringkasnya perkataan.">In this case divided into 3 parts, first is caused by a sum word. </span><span title="Misalnya ayat wa in khiftum alla tuqsithu fi al-yatama fankihu ma thaba lakum mina al-Nisa'i.">For example the verse wa in khiftum alla fi al-yatama tuqsithu fankihu Thaba lakum ma mina al-Nisa'i. </span><span title="Kedua, disebabkan oleh panjangnya perkataan, misalnya laisa kamislihi syai'un.">Second, due to the length of words, such as laisa kamislihi syai'un. </span><span title="Karena jika dikatakan laisa mislahu syai'un maka pendengar akan lebih jelas.">Because if it says laisa mislahu syai'un the listener will be more obvious. </span><span title="Ketiga, karena susunan kalimat.">Third, because the sentence structure. </span><span title="Misalnya anzala 'ala 'abdihi al-kitaba walam yafal lahit 'iwajan qayyiman.">For example anzala 'ala' al-kitaba abdihi walam yafal lahit 'iwajan qayyiman. </span><span title="Susunan sebenarnya adalah al-kitaba qayyiman walam yafal lahu 'iwajan.[14]">The composition is actually al-lahu kitaba qayyiman walam yafal 'iwajan. [14]<br />
</span><span title="Sedangkan Mutasyabih Maknawi adalah sifat-sifat Allah dan sifat-sifat hari kiamat.">While Mutasyabih meaningful is God's nature and properties of doomsday. </span><span title="Karena sifat-sifat tersebut tidak digambarkan secara jelas, sehingga kita belum mendapat gambaran sebenarnya tentang sifat-sifat tersebut dan tidak bisa merasakan kehadirannya karena sifat itu tidak berbentuk jenis yang dapat dirasakan.">Because of these properties are not described clearly, so we have not got a real picture of these traits and can not feel its presence because it does not shape the nature of the type that can be felt.<br />
</span><span title="Adapun Mutasyabih Lafzan wa Ma'nan terbagi menjadi 5 bagian, pertama: untuk menutupi karena keumuman dan kekhususan, misalnya uqtulu al-Musyrikina.">The Mutasyabih Lafzan Ma'nan wa divided into 5 parts, the first: to cover because of the generality and specificity, such as al-Musyrikina uqtulu. </span><span title="Kedua, karena keadaan seperti wajib dan sunnah, misalnya fankihu ma thaba lakum.">Second, because of circumstances such as obligatory and sunnah, for example fankihu Thaba lakum ma. </span><span title="Ketiga, karena masa seperti nasikh dan mansukh.">Third, because the period of such Nasikh and mansukh. </span><span title="Misalnya, ittaqu allaha haqqa tuqatihi.">For example, ittaqu Allaha haqqa tuqatihi. </span><span title="Keempat, karena tempat dan kondisi atau latar belakang turunnya ayat tersebut, Misalnya walaisa al-birru bi'an ta'tu al-buyuta min dhuhuruha, innama al-nasi'u ziyadatun fi al-kufri.[15] Para mufassir yang tidak memperhatikan">Fourth, because the place and conditions or background drop the verse, for example walaisa birru bi'an ta'tu al-al-buyuta min dhuhuruha, innama al-nasi'u ziyadatun fi al-Kufri. [15] The exegete who do not pay attention </span><span title="sebab turunnya ayat tersebut serta tidak memahami kebiasaan orang jahiliyah, maka akan terjebak pada penafsiran dan pemahaman yang salah terhadap ayat tersebut.">because the decline in the verse and did not understand the customs of ignorance, then be stuck on a wrong interpretation and understanding of the verse. </span><span title="Kelima karena adanya syarat-syarat khusus yang menjadikannya suatu perbuatan itu menjadi sah atau tidak sah.">Fifth because of the special conditions that make it an act that becomes valid or invalid. </span><span title="Seperti syarat-syarat sholat dan syarat-syarat nikah.[16]">Such terms and conditions prayers wedlock. [16]<br />
</span><span title="Demikianlah, ketika sebab-sebab tersebut dijelaskan secara eksplisit maka akan diketahui bahwa setiap hal yang disebutkan oleh para mufasir dalam tafsirnya tentang ayat-ayat Mutasyabih maka tidak akan terlepas dari pembagian ini.">Thus, when the causes are explained explicitly it will be known that every thing mentioned by the commentators in his commentary on the verses Mutasyabih will not be apart of this division.<br />
</span><span title="Menurut al-Asfahani tentang kemungkinan mengetahui ayat Mutasyabih ada tiga yaitu, pertama, tidak ada kemampuan bagi manusia untuk mencapai makna yang sebenarnya sehingga hanya Allah saja yang bisa mengetahui makna ayat-ayat Mutasyabih, misalnya kapan terjadinya bari kiamat.">According to al-Asfahani about the possibility of knowing there are three verses Mutasyabih namely, first, there is no ability for humans to reach the true meaning that only God alone can know the meaning of the verses Mutasyabih, for example when the bari apocalypse. </span><span title="Dan huruf-huruf muqatha'ah dalam al-Qur'an, Kedua, ada cara bagi manusia untuk mengetahui makna ayat-ayat Mutasyabih, seperti mengetahui makna lafaz-lafaz asing, serta hukum-hukum yang sulit dimengerti.">And the letters muqatha'ah in the Koran, Second, there is a way for humans to know the meaning of the verses Mutasyabih, such as knowing the meaning lafadz lafadz-foreign, and the laws that are difficult to understand. </span><span title="Ketiga, hanya orang-orang yang mendalam ilmunya dan mempunyai keahlian khusus yang bisa memahami maksud dari ayat-ayat Mutasyabih.">Third, only people who have a deep knowledge and specialized expertise that can understand the meaning of the verses Mutasyabih. </span><span title="Pada bagian ini memang dikhususkan bagi orang-orang yang dikehendaki oleh Allah dapat memahami ayat-ayat Mutasyabih.">This section is devoted to people who willed by God can understand the verses Mutasyabih. </span><span title="[17]">[17]<br />
</span><span title="Hal ini didasarkan pada firman Allah berikut ini:">It is based on following God's word:<br />
</span><span title="هو الذي أنزل عليك الكتاب منه ايات محكمات هن أم الكتاب وأخر متشابهات فأما الذين في قلوبهم زيغ فيتبعون ما تشابه منه ابتغاء الفتنة وابتغاء تأويله وما يعلم تأويله إلا الله والراسخون في العلم يقولون امنا به كل من عند ربنا">هو الذي أنزل عليك الكتاب منه ايات محكمات هن أم الكتاب وأخر متشابهات فأما الذين في قلوبهم زيغ فيتبعون ما تشابه منه ابتغاء الفتنة وابتغاء تأويله وما يعلم تأويله إلا الله والراسخون في العلم يقولون امنا به كل من عند ربنا<br />
</span><span title="Artinya: “Dialah yang menurunkan padamu Al-Kitab.">Meaning: "He is down to you the Book. </span><span title="Di antaranya ada ayat-ayat yang muhkanwt yang merupakan induk Al-Kitab dan yang lain mutasyabihat.">Among these are the verses which are central muhkanwt Book, and others mutashabihat. </span><span title="Akan tetapi, orang-orang yang di dalam hatinya terdapat kesesatan mengikuti apa yang mutasyabihat (sesuatu yang tidak jelas) dari Al-Kitab untuk membuat fitnah dan mencari ta'wi-nya.">However, the people in whose heart there is perversity follow what mutashabihat (something that is not obvious) from the Book, and seeking to make slander ta'wi her. </span><span title="Padahal, yang mengetahui ta'wil-nya hanyalah Allah dan orang-orang yang mendalam ilmunya yang mengatakan kami meyakininya (Al-Kitab) setiap berasal dari sisi Tuhan kami.” (QS Ali 'imran (3):7)">Though, who knows his ta'wil only God and the people of deep knowledge that says we believe in it (the Book) derived from each side of our Lord. "(Surat Ali 'Imran (3): 7)<br />
</span><span title="Ayat di atas berbicara mengenai gerak ittiba', yaitu gerak mentalitas bukan material pada yang mutasyabih, dan gerak ini berusaha mewujudkan dua sasaran melalui keterangan maf'ul li ajlihi kata ibtigha'a, yaitu “fitnah” dan “Ta'wil”.">The above verse speaks about ittiba motion ', ie the motion mentality rather than the material on the mutasyabih, and the motion seeks to achieve two objectives through information maf'ul li ajlihi ibtigha'a said, that "slander" and "ta'wil". </span><span title="Ini berarti bahwa gerak mentalitas merupakan gerak yang berorientasi pada “sasaran” dan “tujuan”, sebab ia merupakan gerak yang “mengikuti” bukan gerak “kembali”.[18]">This means that motion is a motion-oriented mentality of the "target" and "objective", because it is a motion that "follow" is not a movement "back". [18]<br />
</span><span title="Oleh karena itu, pengertian yang dimaksud dengan kata “ta'wil” di sini adalah “sampai pada tujuan”.">Therefore, the definition is meant by the word "ta'wil" here is "arrive at the destination". </span><span title="Makna ini sesuai dengan makna “untuk membuat fitnah”.">This meaning is in accordance with the meaning "to make slanderous". </span><span title="Tujuan dari mengikuti yang mutasyabih adalah membuat fitnah dan sampai pada tujuan dan akibatnya.">The purpose of the mutasyabih follow is to make slanderous and arrive at the destination and its aftermath. </span><span title="Pembacaan ayat di atas berhenti pada nama “Allah”, dan kalimat selanjutnya wa ar-rasikhuna fi al-'ilmi yaquluna dianggap sebagai kalimat baru.">Readings above verse stops at the name "Allah", and the subsequent sentence wa-ar fi al-'ilmi rasikhuna yaquluna considered as a new sentence. </span><span title="Sementara itu, 'ataf pada ayat ini dianggap sebagai pengkontrasan antara dua situasi dan dua kelompok (pengikut mutasyabih dan pengikut dalam kalimat berikutnya).[19]">Meanwhile, 'ataf in this paragraph are considered as pengkontrasan between the two situations and the two groups (mutasyabih followers and followers in the next sentence). [19]<br />
</span><span title="Kesalahan ulama kuno dalam memahami ayat di atas berasal dari kesalahan mereka dalam memahami makna “ta'wil”, dan di dalam menarik kesimpulan bahwa ayat tersebut membuat hukum atau aturan umum terhadap yang mutasyabih.">Clerical errors in understanding ancient verse above comes from their mistakes in understanding the meaning of "ta'wil", and in the conclusion that these verses make a general law or rule against which mutasyabih. </span><span title="Ta'wil yang dilarang menurut maksud ayat tersebut adalah ta'wil yang mengarah pada fitnah, dan ta'wil yang hanya diketahui oleh Allah adalah ta'wil yang mengarah pada “tujuan” dan “akibat” yang tidak diketahui oleh manusia.[20]">Ta'wil purpose prohibited by such subsection is ta'wil that leads to slander, and ta'wil known only to God is ta'wil that lead to the "objective" and "effect" is not known by man. [20]<br />
</span><span title="2.">2. </span><span title="Nasikh dan Mansukh">Nasikh and mansukh<br />
</span><span title="Para ulama dalam menetapkan pengertian naskah berpegang pada dua teks (ayat) Al-Qur'an yang salah satunya makkiyah (QS al-Nahl (16): 101dan yang lain madaniyah. (QS al-Baqarah (2): 106">The scholars in establishing the sense manuscript adhered to the two texts (verses) of the Qur'an, one of which makkiyah (Sura al-Nahl (16): Another 101dan Madaniyah. (Surah al-Baqarah (2): 106<br />
</span><span title="Teks makkiyah adalah">Text makkiyah is<br />
</span><span title="وإذا بدلنا اية مكان اية والله اعلم بما ينزل قالوا انما انت مفتر بل اكثرهم لايعلمون">وإذا بدلنا اية مكان اية والله اعلم بما ينزل قالوا انما انت مفتر بل اكثرهم لايعلمون<br />
</span><span title="Artinya; ”ِِApabila kami menggantikan sebuah ayat pada ayat lain, padahal Allah lebih mengetahui apa yang diturunkan-Nya, mereka berkata “sesungguhnya kamu adalah orang-orang yang mengada-ada saja” bahkan kebanyakan mereka tiada mengetahui.”">It means: "If we replace a paragraph in another verse, but Allah knows what is revealed by Him, they said," ye are the people who are just making it up "even most of them do not know."<br />
</span><span title="Dalam konteks ini, “penggantian” ayat dengan ayat lain berarti perubahan hukum yang ada pada suatu teks dengan teks lain dengan tetap mempertahankan kedua teks tersebut.">In this context, the "replacement" verse with other verses mean a change in existing law on a text with another text while maintaining the two texts. </span><span title="Oleh karena itu, struktur ayat mengikuti pola kondisional (syarat), sementara isi kalimat (jawab syarat) berupa tuduhan orang-orang Makkah terhadap Muhammad sebagai kebohongan.">Therefore, the structure of the verse follows the pattern of conditional (requirement), while the content of the sentence (for terms) in the form of charges of the people of Mecca to Muhammad as a lie. </span><span title="Tuduhan ini hanya mengindikasikan bahwa menurut anggapan mereka ada kontradiksi dalam teks.">This charge only indicates that they are supposed contradictions in the text.<br />
</span><span title="Ayat lain yang dipegangi para ulama dalam menentukan makna naskah adalah ayat madaniyyah, yaitu:">Another verse that held the scholars in determining the meaning of the text is a paragraph madaniyyah, namely:<br />
</span><span title="ما ننسخ من ا ية او ننسها نأت بخير منها او مثلها الم تعلم ان الله كل شيئ قدير">ما ننسخ من ا ية او ننسها نأت بخير منها او مثلها الم تعلم ان الله كل شيئ قدير<br />
</span><span title="Artinya; “Ayat mana saja yang kami nasakhkan atau kami jadikan (manusia) lupa kepadanya, kami datangkan yang lebih baik dari padanya atau yang sebanding dengannya.">It means: "The verse anywhere that we nasakhkan or we make (people) forget him, we bring him better than or comparable with it. </span><span title="Tidakkah kamu mengetahui bahwa sesungguhnya Allah Maha Kuasa atas segala sesuatu.”">Do you not know that Allah hath power over all things. "<br />
</span><span title="Konteks teks di atas berbeda dengan konteks teks sebelumnya, yang terakhir menunjuk pada permusuhan ahli kitab terhadap kaum muslimin dan sikap menentang mereka terhadap kaum muslimin dalam segala hal.">Context of the above text is different from the context of the previous text, the latter refers to the scribes of hostility against the Muslims and their resistance against the Muslims in all respects. </span><span title="Menurut mereka ayat-ayat al-Qur'an bersifat kontradiktif.">According to them the verses of the Koran is contradictory. </span><span title="Misalnya, keberatan mereka atas dibatalkannya teks tentang riba, sementara teks yang sama menjanjikan orang-orang mukmin sebuah kebaikan yang akan dibalas dengan sepuluh sampai tujuh puluh kali lipat.">For example, their objection on the cancellation of the text on usury, while the same text promises believers a favor that will be repaid with ten to seventy-fold.<br />
</span><span title="Contoh kedua, sebuah ayat yang dimasukkan oleh para ulama ke dalam Nasakh, yaitu perubahan arah kiblat ke Ka'bah, sementara sebelumnya Nabi dan kaum muslimin dalam shalat menghadap ke Bait al-Maqdis.">The second example, a clause inserted by the scholars into the abrogated, ie changes to the Kaba Qibla direction, while previously the Prophet and the Muslims in prayer facing the Bait al-Maqdis.<br />
</span><span title="Pada dasarnya, Al-Asfahani dalam menguraikan definisi mengenai naskh dan mansukh juga mendasarkan pada kedua ayat di atas, namun Al-Asfahani lebih detail dalam kupasan akar katanya.">In essence, Al-Asfahani in elaborating a definition of naskh and mansukh also basing on the second paragraph above, but Al-Asfahani more detail in peeling root.<br />
</span><span title="Naskh menurut bahasa dipergunakan untuk arti izalah (menghilangkan).">Naskh according to the language used to sense izalah (remove). </span><span title="Misalnya: nasakhat al-syamsu al-dhilla artinya, matahari menghilangkan bayang-bayang;[21] dan wanasakhat al-rihu asara al-syamsa artinya, angin menghapuskan jejak perjalanan.[22] Kata naskh juga dipergunakan untuk makna memindahkan sesuatu dari suatu tempat">For example: nasakhat al-al-dhilla Syamsu means, eliminating the shadows of the sun; [21] and al-rihu wanasakhat Asara al-syamsa means, eliminate wind trail. [22] The word meaning of naskh is also used to move things from one place </span><span title="ke tempat lain.">to another place. </span><span title="Misalnya: nasakhtu al-kitab artinya, saya memindahkan (menyalin) apa yang ada dalam buku.">For example: nasakhtu al-kitab means, I move (copy) what is in the book. </span><span title="Di dalam Qur'an dinyatakan: inna kunna nastansikhu ma kuntum ta'malun (al-Jasiyah [45]:29).">In the Qur'an it is stated: inna kunna nastansikhu ta'malun ma bud (al-Jasiyah [45]: 29). </span><span title="Maksudnya, kami memindahkan (mencatat) amal perbuatan ke dalam lembaran (catatan amal).">That is, we move the (record) into a sheet of deeds (charity record).<br />
</span><span title="Menurut istilah naskh ialah mengangkat (menghapuskan) hukum syara' dengan dalil hukum (khitab) syara' yang lain.">According to the term naskh is raised (eliminating) the law of Personality 'to the proposition of law (khitab) Personality' to another. </span><span title="Dengan perkataan “hukum”, maka tidak termasuk dalam pengertian naskh menghapuskan “kebolehan” yang bersifat asal (al-bara'ah al-asliyah).">With the word "law", it is not included within the meaning of naskh eliminate the "permissibility" which is the origin (al-al-asliyah bara'ah).<br />
</span><span title="Atas dasar itulah, maka makna nasakh menurut al-Asfahani adalah mengganti hukum sebuah teks atas hukum lain tapi dengan mempertahankan kedua teks tersebut.">On this basis, then the meaning abrogated according to al-Asfahani is replace the text of a law other law but by retaining the two texts.<br />
</span><span title="Mansukh adalah hukum yang diangkat atau dihapuskan.">Mansukh is a law that removed or eliminated. </span><span title="Maka ayat mawaris atau hukum yang terkandung di dalamnya, adalah menghapuskan (nasikh) hukum wasiat kepada kedua orang tua atau kerabat (mansukh).">Then verse Mawaris or law contained therein, is abolished (Nasikh) legal testament to both parents or relatives (mansukh). </span><span title="Dari uraian di atas dapat disimpulkan bahwa dalam naskh diperlukan syarat-syarat berikut:">From the above description it can be concluded that in naskh required the following conditions:<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Hukum yang mansukh adalah hukum syara’.">Mansukh law is the law of Personality '.<br />
</span><span title="Dalil penghapusan hukum tersebut adalah khitab syar'i yang datang lebih kemudian dari khitab yang hukumnya mansukh.">Elimination theorem khitab law is coming over later syar'i of khitab whose law mansukh.<br />
</span><span title="Khitab yang mansukh hukumnya tidak terikat (dibatasi) dengan waktu tertentu.">Khitab yang mansukh law is bound (restricted) with a certain time. </span><span title="Sebab jika tidak demikian maka hukum akan berakhir dengan berakhirnya waktu tersebut.">Because otherwise the law would expire with the end of that time. </span><span title="Dan yang demikian tidak dinamakan naskh.\">And thus not called naskh. \<br />
</span><span title="D.">D. </span><span title="Pandangan al-Asfahani tentang Tafsir.">View of Tafsir al-Asfahani.<br />
</span><span title="Ada perbedaan di antara ahli bahasa mengenai asal-usul etimologis kata “tafsir”, apakah ia berasal dari fassara, yufassiru, tafsiran, atau berasal dari safara.">There are differences among linguists about the etymological origins of the word "interpretation", whether it comes from fassara, yufassiru, interpretation, or derived from safara. </span><span title="Demikian juga menurut al-Asfahani, jika kata al-Fasru dimaknai “pengamatan dokter terhadap air”, dan kata al-tafsirah adalah “urine” yang dipergunakan untuk menunjukkan adanya penyakit, dan para dokter meneliti berdasarkan warnanya untuk menunjukkan adanya penyakit bagi si sakit”">Similarly, according to al-Asfahani, if the word al-Fasru interpreted "observation physician to water", and said al-tafsirah is "urine" is used to indicate the presence of disease, and the doctors examined based on its color to indicate the presence of disease for the sick " </span><span title="maka kita dihadapkan pada dua perkara yaitu, pertama materi yang diamati dokter untuk menyingkapkan penyakit, yang disebut tafsirah.">then we are faced with two cases namely, the first material that observed the doctor to reveal the disease, called tafsirah. </span><span title="Dan kedua adalah tindakan yang memungkinkannya untuk meneliti materi dan menyingkapkan penyakit.[23]">And the second is the action that enabled him to examine the matter and reveal the disease. [23]<br />
</span><span title="Materi yang dicermati dokter mempresentasikan “medium” yang digunakan sang dokter untuk dapat menemukan penyakit.">The material examined physician presented the "medium" used the doctors to be able to find the disease. </span><span title="Ini berarti bahwa 'tafsir', yaitu penemuan penyakit si sakit, menuntut adanya materi (objek) dan pengamatan (zat).[24]">This means that the 'interpretation', namely the discovery of the disease the patient, requires the matter (object) and observation (substance). [24]<br />
</span><span title="Selanjutnya kata safara mempunyai banyak makna yang intinya adalah perjalanan dan perpindahan.">The next word has many meanings safara point is travel and relocation. </span><span title="Dari makna ini muncul makna penyingkapan dan pemunculan.">From this meaning came the disclosure of meaning and appearance. </span><span title="Dinamakan “Musafir” karena ia menyingkapkan tudung penutup wajahnya.">Named "Musafir" because it reveals the hood covering his face. </span><span title="Sedangkan Safar berarti membuka wajah-wajah musafir dan akhlak-akhlak mereka sehingga tampaklah apa yang sebelumnya tertutup.">While Safar means opening the faces of travelers and morals, their morals, so it appears what was previously closed. </span><span title="Asfar al-qaum artinya mereka memasuki waktu pagi.">Asfar al-qaum means they entered the morning. </span><span title="Asfara artinya menerangi sebelum matahari terbit.">Asfara means to illuminate before sunrise. </span><span title="Safara wajhuhu husnan wa asfara artinya wajahnya bersinar.">Safara wajhuhu husnan wa asfara means his face was shining. </span><span title="Dalam Al-Qur'an ada ungkapan: wujuhun yauma'idzin musfirah.">In the Qur'an there is a saying: wujuhun yauma'idzin musfirah. </span><span title="Al-Farra' mengatakan: maksudnya wajahnya bersinar.">Al-Farra 'says: that her face was shining.<br />
</span><span title="Dari materi ini terdapat kata as-Safir, yaitu utusan dan pendamai antar kelompok, bentuk jamaknya as-Sufara.">From this material there are as-Safir said, the envoy and peacemaker between groups, as-Sufara plural form. </span><span title="Barangkali makna ini berkaitan dengan pengertian perpindahan dan gerakan.">Perhaps the meaning is concerned with understanding the displacement and movement. </span><span title="Safartu baina qaumi, artinya saya berusaha mendamaikan mereka.">Safartu bayn Qaumi, which means I try to reconcile them.<br />
</span><span title="Ibnu Arafah mengatakan: Para malaikat disebut dengan safarah karena menampakkan diri antara Allah dan para Nabi-Nya.">Ibn Arafa said: The angels called safarah since appeared between God and His Prophet. </span><span title="Abu Bakr mengatakan: Mereka disebut dengan safarah karena mereka membawa turun wahyu Allah, izin-Nya, dan apa saja yang dapat dipergunakan untuk mendamaikan manusia.">Abu Bakr said: They are called by safarah because they bring down the revelation of God, His permission, and anything that can be used to reconcile humans. </span><span title="Dalam hadits Terdapat ungkapan: Perumpamaan orang yang mahir Al-Qur'an seperti safarah, yaitu para malaikat.">There are expressions in the hadith: The parable of good people like safarah Qur'an, ie the angels. </span><span title="Dinamakan demikian karena ia dapat menjelaskan sesuatu.">So called because he can explain something. </span><span title="Atas dasar penjelasan ini, pengertian safarah (mufrad: safir) berkaitan dengan makna menyingkapkan dan menjelaskan, selain berkaitan dengan gerak dan mobilitas.[25]">On the basis of this explanation, understanding safarah (simplex: sapphire) relating to reveal and explain the meaning, other than related to the motion and mobility. [25]<br />
</span><span title="Atas dasar itu, kata tafsir berakar kata dari al-fasru atau as-safru, keduanya sama-sama memiliki unsur pembentukan kata yang sama: sin-fa'-ra,' sehingga kedua materi tersebut pada akhirnya bermakna satu, yaitu mengungkapkan sesuatu yang tersembunyi">On that basis, the word interpretation stems from the word al-fasru or as-safru, they both have the same elements of word formation: sin-fa'-ra, 'so that both materials are ultimately meaningful one, that reveals something hidden </span><span title="melalui mediator yang dianggap sebagai tanda agar dapat mengungkap yang tersembunyi dan samar.">through a mediator who is considered a sign in order to uncover the hidden and subtle.<br />
</span><span title="Oleh karena itu, Ibnu Faris berpendapat bahwa: “untuk mengungkapkan maksud dari suatu ungkapan atau pernyataan dapat dikembalikan pada tiga hal, yaitu makna, tafsir, dan tawil.">Therefore, Ibn Faris argues that: "for the express purpose of a phrase or statement can be restored in three ways, namely meaning, interpretation, and Tawil. </span><span title="Ketiganya, meskipun berbeda, namun maksudnya berdekatan.">All three, though different, but the point adjacent. </span><span title="Makna adalah tujuan dan maksud.">Meaning is the purpose and intent. </span><span title="Kalimat: 'unitu bi hadza al-kalam kadza, berarti maksud saya begini.">Sentence: 'unitu bi al-kalam kadza Hadza, this means my intention. </span><span title="la merupakan derivasi dari kata idhar, yaitu memperlihatkan.">He is a derivation of the word idhar, ie show. </span><span title="Kalimat: 'anal al-qirbatu, maksudnya apabila anda tidak menyimpan air, malahan memperlihatkannya.">Sentence: 'anal al-qirbatu, meaning if you do not save water, even showing it. </span><span title="Makna ini sama dengan ungkapan ‘unwan al-kitab.">This meaning is the same as the phrase 'unwan al-kitab. </span><span title="Ada yang mengatakan asal makna kata tersbut berasal dari ucapan orang Arab: 'anat al-ard bi nabat hasan, maksudnya bumi itu menumbuhkan tanaman-tanaman yang bagus.[26]">Some say the origin of the meaning of the word comes from the words serve targeted Arabs: 'Anat nabat bi ard al-hasan, meaning the earth brought forth good crops. [26]<br />
</span><span title="Dengan demikian, Tafsir menurut bahasa berasal dari makna memperlihatkan dan menyingkapkan.">Thus, the interpretation according to the language comes from the show and reveal the meaning. </span><span title="Menurut bahasa ia berasal dari masdar tafsirah, yaitu sedikit air yang dipakai dokter untuk sampel.">According to the language it comes from tafsirah Masdar, which is a bit of water used for sample physicians. </span><span title="Dengan pengamatannya itu ia dapat menemukan penyakit pasien.">With the observations that he can find a patient's disease. </span><span title="Demikian pula seorang mufassir yang menyingkapkan masalah ayat, cerita, dan maknanya, serta penyebab turunnya.">Similarly, an exegete who reveals the problem verses, stories, and its meaning, and cause downs. </span><span title="Dengan demikian, tafsir adalah penyingkapan maksud yang terkunci lewat kata serta mengeluarkan sesuatu yang tertahan untuk dipahami.">Thus, the interpretation is the revelation of intent that is locked by word and issued something muffled to understand. </span><span title="Kata fasara dan fassara mempunyai makna yang sama, hanya saja yang lebih banyak dipakai bentuknya yang lebih dari tiga huruf (fassara).">Fasara and fassara words have the same meaning, only the more widely used form more than three letters (fassara). </span><span title="Abu al-Fath bin al-Jinni memakai bentuk masdar al-fasr ketika menamakan suku-sukunya.">Abu al-Fath ibn al-Jinni put on the form of al-Masdar fasr when naming its terms.<br />
</span><span title="Pemakaian kata at-Tafsir dalam Al-Qur 'an dengan pengertian menjelaskan, yaitu dalam Surat al-Furqan:">The use of the word at-Tafsir of al-Qur 'an with understanding to explain, that in Surat al-Furqan:<br />
</span><span title="ولا يأتونك بمثل إلا جئناك بالحق وأحسن تفسيرا">ولا يأتونك بمثل إلا جئناك بالحق وأحسن تفسيرا<br />
</span><span title="Artinya: “Tidaklah orang-orang kafir itu datang kepadamu membawa sesuatu yang ganjil, melainkan Kami datangkan padamu sesuatu yang benar dan yang paling baik penjelasannya.”">It means: "It is not the infidels were coming to bring something odd, but We bring to you something that is true and the best explanation."<br />
</span><span title="Ayat tersebut berkaitan dengan bantahan terhadap orang-orang musyrik Makkah yang sering menyakiti Rasulullah dengan sikap-sikap mereka yang meragukan kenabiannya dan risalahnya.">The verse relates to a refutation of the idolaters of Mecca which often hurt the Messenger of Allah with their attitudes and doubting his prophetic treatise. </span><span title="Mereka pernah menyebutkan Al-Qur'an sebagai “kebohongan yang diada-adakan oleh Muhammad dan dia dibantu oleh kaum lain”.">They never mention the Qur'an as "a lie that was held-held by Muhammad and he was assisted by the other".<br />
</span><span title="E.">E. </span><span title="Pandangan al-Asfahani tentang Ta’wil.">The views of al-Asfahani about ta'wil.<br />
</span><span title="Sebelum menguraikan pandangan al-Asfahani mengenai ta'wil, akan sedikit disinggung bahwa kata ta'wil muncul dalam Al-Qur 'an sebanyak 17 kali, [27]sementara kata tafsir muncul hanya sekali.">Before outlining the views of al-Asfahani of ta'wil, will be slightly touched on that word ta'wil appeared in Al-Qur 'an as much as 17 times, [27] while the word interpretation appears only once. </span><span title="Tentunya ini menunjukkan bahwa kata ta'wil lebih populer dalam bahasa pada umumya, dan dalam teks khususnya, daripada kata tafsir.">Surely this indicates that the word ta'wil more popular in the umumya language, and in particular texts, rather than the commentary said. </span><span title="Barangkali, rahasia di balik ini adalah bahwa ta'wil merupakan konsep yang dikenal dalam peradaban sebelum Islam yang berkaitan dengan tafsir terhadap mimpi atau ta'wil al-ahadis.[28]">Perhaps, the secret behind this is that ta'wil a concept known in pre-Islamic civilization associated with the interpretation of dreams or ta'wil al-Hadith. [28]<br />
</span><span title="Akar kata “ta'wil” berasal dari kata al-awal yang berarti kembali/pulang (ruju' 'ala, ya'ulu, awlan, ma'alan berarti raja'a. Awwala ilaihi as-syai' berarti mengembalikan padanya. Dalam sebuah">The root word "ta'wil" comes from the word al-initial mean back / return (ruju '' ala, ya'ulu, awlan, ma'alan means raja'a. Awwala ilaihi as-syai 'means to restore him. In a </span><span title="hadits terdapat ungkapan: man shama ad-dahra fa la shama wa la ala (Barangsiapa yang berpuasa sepanjang masa sebenarnya ia tidak berpuasa dan tidak akan mendapatkan kebaikan). Kata “ta'wil” di sini merupakan bentuk kata “taf'il” dari kata">there is a hadith saying: man ad-dahra shama shama wa fa la la la (Whoever fasted all time in fact he did not fast and will not get good). The word "ta'wil" here is a form of the word "taf'il" from the word </span><span title="kerja awwala, yu'awwilu, ta'wilan, dan bentuk kata dasarnya adalah ala, ya'ulu yang berarti pulang atau kembali.">awwala work, yu'awwilu, ta'wilan, and is essentially a form of word-style, which means ya'ulu home or back.<br />
</span><span title="Dengan demikian, pengertian ta'wil adalah kembali pada asal-usul sesuatu; apakah itu berbentuk perbuatan ataukah cerita, dan itu dilakukan untuk mengungkapkan makna dan substansinya.">Thus, understanding ta'wil is back at the origins of things, whether it is in deed or story, and it was done to reveal the meaning and substance.<br />
</span><span title="F.">F. </span><span title="Perbedaan Tafsir dan Ta’wil">Differences Tafseer and ta'wil<br />
</span><span title="Setelah mengetahui pengertian antara “tafsir” dan “ta'wil' menurut bahasa, terdapat perbedaan yang penting antara keduanya tercermin dalam kenyataan bahwa proses “tafsir” membutuhkan “tafsirah“, yaitu medium yang dicermati mufasir sehingga ia dapat menyingkapkan apa yang dikehendakinya, sementara “">After knowing the meaning of "interpretation" and "ta'wil 'according to the language, there are important differences between the two is reflected in the fact that the process of" interpretation "requires" tafsirah ", ie a medium that commentators observed so that he can reveal what she wants, while" </span><span title="ta'wil” merupakan proses yang tidak selalu membutuhkan medium ini, bahkan kadang-kadang berdasarkan pada gerak mental dalam menemukan asal mula dari sebuah gejala, atau dalam mengamati akibatnya.">ta'wil "is a process that does not always require this medium, sometimes even based on mental motion in discovering the origin of a symptom, or in observing the consequences. </span><span title="Dengan kata lain, ta'wil dapat dijalankan atas dasar semacam hubungan langsung antara “zat/subjek” dan “objek”, sementara hubungan ini dalam proses “tafsir” bukanlah hubungan langsung tetapi hubungan melalui medium yang berupa teks bahasa, atau berupa sesuatu yang bermakna">In other words, ta'wil can be run on the basis of such a direct relationship between the "substance / subject" and "object", while this relationship is in the process of "interpretation" is not a direct relationship but the relationship through the medium of language in the form of text, or as something that is meaningful </span><span title=".">. </span><span title="[29]">[29]<br />
</span><span title="Dalam dua situasi tersebut harus ada medium yang mempresentasikan “tanda”, di mana melalui tanda ini proses pemahaman terhadap objek oleh mufasir dapat berlangsung.">In these two situations there should be a medium that presented the "sign", where the sign is the understanding of the object by the commentators can take place.<br />
</span><span title="Perbedaan yang dilakukan oleh para ulama tafsir dan ta'wil menurut istilah dapat kita rasakan adanya beberapa sisi perbedaan menurut bahasa.">The difference made by the scholars and commentators ta'wil according to the terms we can feel the existence of some differences according to the language. </span><span title="Dari sisi-sisi ini, mereka membatasi tafsir kadang-kadang pada berbagai aspek eksternal dari teks, selain teks itu sendiri, sehingga tafsir adalah:">From the sides of this, they limit the interpretation is sometimes on the external aspects of the text, besides the text itself, so the interpretation is:<br />
</span><span title="“Ilmu tentang turunnya ayat, surat-surat, dan cerita-cerita yang berkenaan dengan ayat, isyarat yang ada di dalamnya, kronologi makkiyyah dan madaniyyah, muhkam dan mutasyabih, nasikh dan mansukh, khas dan 'am, mutlaq dan muqayyad, mujmal dan mufassar">"Science is about low verse, letters, and stories relating to the verse, the signal is in it, and madaniyyah makkiyyah chronology, muhkam and mutasyabih, Nasikh and mansukh, typical and 'am, mutlaq and muqayyad, mujmal and mufassar </span><span title=".">. </span><span title="Selain itu, ada yang menambahkan: ilmu tentang halal haram, janji dan ancaman, perintah dan larangan, ibrah dan perumpamaan.">In addition, there is added: the science of halal haram, promises and threats, commands and prohibitions, ibrah and parables. </span><span title="Inilah aspek yang tidak diperkenankan bagi ra'yu untuk ikut campur.”[30]">This is the aspect that is not permissible for ra'yu to intervene. "[30]<br />
</span><span title="Sementara itu, ta'wil menurut bahasa barasal dari al-awl.">Meanwhile, according ta'wil barasal language of al-AWL. </span><span title="Pengertian dari ungkapan: Ma ta'wilu hadza al-Kalam?">Sense of the phrase: Ma ta'wilu Hadza al-Kalam? </span><span title="Ada yang mengatakan: 'ala al-amru ila kadza, artinya urusan tersebut menjadi demikian ….">Some say: 'ala al-Amr ila kadza, meaning that the matter be so .... </span><span title="Kata tersebut berasal dari al-ma'al, yaitu akibat dan kondisi akhir.">The word is derived from al-ma'al, which is due and the final conditions. </span><span title="Awwaltuhu fa 'ala, artinya saya membuatnya berpaling, maka ia pun berpaling, sehingga kata ta'wil berarti mengarahkan ayat pada makna yang dimungkinkannya.">Awwaltuhu fa 'ala, meaning I made him turn back, then he turned back, so that means directing said ta'wil paragraph on the possibility of meaning. </span><span title="Ada yang mengatakan: asalnya dari 'iyalah, yaitu mengatur sehingga seolah-olah orang yang men-ta'wil-kan kalam mengatur kalam dan meletakkan makna di tempatnya pada kalam tersebut.”">Some say it came from 'iyalah, which is set up so as if the person who to his ta'wil kalam kalam and put meaning to set in place on the pen. "<br />
</span><span title="Di sini, tafsir tampaknya khusus bagi aspek-aspek umum yang eksternal dari teks, seperti pengetahuan tentang asbdb an-nuzul, cerita makkiyyah dan madaniyyah, nasikh dan mansukh.">Here, the interpretation seems special to general aspects of the external text, such as knowledge of an-nuzul Asbab, stories and madaniyyah makkiyyah, Nasikh and mansukh. </span><span title="Semua ilmu ini adalah ilmu-iknu naqliyah yang berdasarkan pada riwayat menurut ulama kuno.">All science is science-based iknu naqliyah according to the history of ancient scholars. </span><span title="Dalam ilmu-ilmu tersebut tidak ada tempat untuk berijtihad kecuali hanya memberikan penilaian di antara riwayat-riwayat tersebut atau berusaha mengkompromikannya seperti yang kita ketahui pada pasal-pasal sebelumnya.">In the sciences there is no place for diligence but only provide an assessment of these narrations or trying mengkompromikannya as we know it in previous chapters. </span><span title="Menunjuk pada 'dm dan khas, mutlaq dan muqayyad, mujmal dan mufassar, merupakan penunjukan terhadap aspek-aspek semantis ijtihadiah di mana mufassir memiliki peran dalam menentukannya, tetapi ia hanya merupakan penunjukan terhadap “pengetahuan” tentang apa saja yang dikatakan ulama kuno di seputar permasalahan">Pointing to the 'dm and distinctive, and muqayyad mutlaq, mujmal and mufassar, a designation of the semantic aspects ijtihadiah where mufassir have a role in it defined, but it is simply a designation of "knowledge" about what was said ancient scholars around the problem </span><span title="tersebut.">them. </span><span title="Hal yang sama berlaku pada pengetahuan mengenai halal dan haram, janji dan ancaman, perintah dan larangan, ibrah dan perumpamaan.">The same applies to the knowledge of halal and haram, promises and threats, commands and prohibitions, ibrah and parables. </span><span title="Ilmu tafsir melalui batasan di atas tampak sebagai suatu ilmu yang menghimpun semua ilmu yang menjadi pengantar bagi ta'wil yang mempresentasikan usaha pen-ta'wil dalam “mengarahkan” ayat pada makna yang dimungkinkan ayat.">Science commentary through restrictions on appearance as a science which brings together all the science that serve as an introduction for ta'wil who presented the pen-ta'wil efforts in the "lead" paragraph on the possible meaning of the verse. </span><span title="Atas dasar itu, “tafsir” merupakan bagian dari proses “ta'wil”, dan hubungan antara keduanya adalah hubungan antara yang khas dan yang 'am di satu sisi, atau hubungan naql dengan ijtihad di sisi lain, yaitu hubungan yang diungkapkan oleh ulama kuno">On that basis, "interpretation" is part of the process "ta'wil", and the relationship between the two is the relationship between the typical and the 'am on the one hand, or naql relationship with ijtihad on the other hand, the relationship expressed by the scholars of the ancient </span><span title="dengan nama riwayah dan dirayah.">with the name and dirayah riwayah.<br />
</span><span title="Ada yang mengatakan: Ta'wil berusaha menyingkapkan makna yang terkunci.">Some say: ta'wil trying to reveal the meaning of that is locked. </span><span title="Oleh karena itu, al-Bajili mengatakan: Tafsir berkaitan dengan riwayah, dan ta'wil berkaitan dengan dirayah.">Therefore, al-Bajili said: Tafseer related to riwayah, and related ta'wil dirayah. </span><span title="Abu Nasr al-Qusyairi mengatakan: dalam tafsir yang dikedepankan adalah mengikuti dan mendengar sementara istinbat hanya dilakukan pada apa yang berkaitan dengan ta'wil.">Abu Nasr al-Qushayri says: in the interpretation being put forward is to follow and listen while istinbat only done on what to do with ta'wil.<br />
</span><span title="Abu al-Qasim bin Habib al-Naisaburi, Baghawi, al-Kawasyi, dan lainnya mengatakan: Ta'wil adalah mengarahkan ayat pada makna yang sesuai dengan yang sebelum dan sesudahnya yang dimungkinkan oleh ayat, tidak bertentangan dengan Al-Kitab dan as-Sunnah">Abu al-Qasim ibn Habib al-Naisaburi, Baghawi, al-Kawasyi, and others say: ta'wil is directed at the meaning of the verse according to which before and after it made possible by the verse, not contrary to the Book, and as-Sunnah </span><span title="melalui istinbat.">through istinbat.<br />
</span><span title="“Ta'wil” berkaitan dengan istinbat, sementara tafsir umumnya didominasi oleh naql dan riwayat.">"Ta'wil" relates to istinbat, while commentators generally dominated by naql and history. </span><span title="Dalam perbedaan ini terkandung salah satu dimensi penting dari proses ta'wil, yaitu peran pembaca dalam mengahadapi teks dan dalam menemukan maknanya.">This difference is contained in one important dimension of ta'wil process, namely the role of the reader in the text, and facing in finding meaning. </span><span title="Peran pembaca atau pen-ta'wil bukanlah peran mutlak yang mengubah ta'wil menjadi teks yang tunduk pada kepentingan subjektif, tetapi ta'wil harus berdasarkan pada pengetahuan mengenai beberapa ilmu yang secara niscaya berkaitan dengan teks, dan berada dalam konsep “tafsir”.">The role of the reader or pen-ta'wil is not an absolute role that converts text ta'wil be subject to subjective interests, but ta'wil must be based on knowledge of some science which is undoubtedly related to the text, and is in the concept of "interpretation". </span><span title="Pen-ta'wil harus mengetahui benar tentang tafsir yang memungkinkannya memberikan “ta'wil” yang diterima dalam teks, yaitu ta'wil yang tidak menundukkan teks pada kepentingan subjektif dan ideologisnya.">Pen-ta'wil should know well about the interpretation that enables it to give "ta'wil" received in a text, ie text ta'wil that are not subject to the subjective and ideological interests.<br />
</span><span title="Inilah yang diungkapkan oleh ulama kuno sebagai ta'wil yang dilarang dan bertentangan dengan apa yang dikatakan dan yang dipahami dari teks.">This was revealed by ancient scholars as ta'wil prohibited and contrary to what is said and understood from the text.<br />
</span><span title="G.">G. </span><span title="Kontribusi Al-Asfahani dalam kajian Al-Qur’an">Al-Asfahani contributions in the study of the Qur'an<br />
</span><span title="Sumbangan pemikirannya akan sangat membantu para pengkaji al-Qur'an terutama orang awam yang belum mcndalam pengetahuan kebahasaanya.">Donation will greatly help thinking the reviewer of the Koran, especially lay people who have not mcndalam kebahasaanya knowledge. </span><span title="Namun perlu dicermati bahwa al-Asfahani bukan seperti para mufassir yang mencoba menafsirkan al-Qur'an melalui pendekatan kebahasaan sebagaimana al-Zamkhsyari dengan al-Kasysyaf, Jalaludin al-Mahally dan Jalaluddin al-Suyuthi dalam tafsir jalainnya dan masih banyak lagi para mufassir sekaligus">However, it should be observed that al-Asfahani not like the exegete who tried to interpret the Koran through the linguistic approach, as al-Zamkhsyari with al-Kasysyaf, Jalaludin al-Mahally and Jalaluddin al-Suyuti in jalainnya commentary and much more once the exegete </span><span title="ahli bahasa.">linguist. </span><span title="Terutama para mufassir kontemporer seperti A'isyah Abdurrahman bint al-Syathi' dalam tafsir al-Bayan li al-Qur'an al-karim.">Especially the contemporary exegete like A'ishah bint Abd al-Syathi 'The Interpretation of li al-Bayan al-Qur'an al-karim.<br />
</span><span title="Al-Zamakhsyari adalah seorang ulama genius yang sangat ahli dalam bidang ilmu nahwu, bahasa, sastra dan sekaligus ilmu tafsir.">Al-Zamakhsyari was a genius who is an expert scholar in the field of science Nahwu, language, literature and science as well as interpretation. </span><span title="Bahkan dalam aspek kebahasaan beliau berhasil berjasa telah menyingkap keindahan al-Qur'an dan daya tarik balaghahnya.[31]">Even in the aspects of language has revealed he successfully contributed to the beauty of the Qur'an and balaghahnya appeal. [31]<br />
</span><span title="Begitu juga tafsir jalalain karya al-Suyuthi dan al-Mahally, nuansa kebahasaan tergambar jelas dalam kupasan setiap ayat yang tidak pernah sepi akan kajian yang mendalam tentang keindahan gaya bahasa al-Qur'an.">Likewise Jalalain work of al-Suyuti and al-Mahally, the nuances of language clearly illustrated in the peel of each verse which never deserted will study the niceties of style of the Koran.<br />
</span><span title="Di antara mufassir perempuan modern yang ikut ambil!">Among mufassir modern woman who participated! </span><span title="bagian dalam kesusasteraan arab dan pemikiran social adalah A'syah Abdurrahman yang popular dengan Bint al-Syathi'.">part in Arab literature and social thought is popular with A'syah Abdurrahman al-Bint Syathi '. </span><span title="Beliau adalah pengajar pada fakultas adab di Kairo dan pada fakultas tarbiyah putri.[32]">He is a lecturer at the faculty of adab in Cairo and on the faculty tarbiyah daughter. [32]<br />
</span><span title="Di dalam tafsirnya, al-Tafsir al-Bayan li al-Qur'an al-Karim, Bintu Syathi' memusatkan perhatian pada aspek-aspek balaghah al-Qur'an dan mengungkapkannya dengan sastrawi yang tinggi.">In the commentary, Tafsir al-li al-Bayan al-Qur'an al-Karim, Bintu Syathi 'focus on those aspects Balaghah Qur'an and express it with high literary.<br />
<br />
<br />
</span><span title="H.">H. </span><span title="Kesimpulan">Conclusion<br />
</span><span title="Ini berarti bahwa kajian ini memperlakukan al-Qur'an sebagai kitab agung berbahasa Arab, dan pengaruh sastrawinya yang indah.">This means that this study treats the Qur'an as a book of great Arabic, and the influence sastrawinya beautiful.<br />
</span><span title="Bagi al-Asfahani, al-Qur'an merupakan kitab artistika Arab yang sakral.">For al-Asfahani, the Qur'an is the sacred book of the Arab Artistika. </span><span title="Setelah menuntaskan kajiannya pada aspek sastrawi tersebut, al-Asfahani mengarahkannya pada kepada kandungan ayat dengan mengambil dan menukil apa saja yang dikehendakinya dan sesuai dengan bahasan.">Having completed studies on the literary aspect, al-Asfahani aimed at the content and quoting verses by taking whatever he wanted and in accordance with the discussion.</span></span></div></div></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-15929498911075970672011-12-16T20:54:00.000-08:002011-12-16T20:54:51.948-08:00Hermeneutic’s in Religious and Islamic Context<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/71AR7JHBQBL._SL500_AA300_.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/71AR7JHBQBL._SL500_AA300_.gif" /></a></div><br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="A.">A. </span><span title="Pendahuluan">Preliminary<br />
</span><span title="Membongkar nalar (episteme) klasik yang masih tertanam kuat dalam kesadaran dan keyakinan umat Islam, khususnya yang terkait dengan pemahaman tentang al-Qur'an, Sunnah, Hadis, Fiqih, dll., merupakan tugas penting yang semestinya dilakukan oleh para cendekiawan dan intelektual muslim">Dismantling reasoning (episteme) classic that is still firmly entrenched in the consciousness and beliefs of Muslims, especially those associated with an understanding of the Qur'an, Sunnah, Hadith, Fiqh, etc.., Is an important task that should be done by Muslim scholars and intellectuals </span><span title="masa sekarang.[1] Sebab, nalar klasik –dengan segala kebesarannya- bukanlah produk pemikiran yang suci dan harus diterapkan dalam segala ruang dan waktu.">the present. [1] Therefore, the reason the classic-with-all his glory was not the product of thought is sacred and should be applied in all space and time. </span><span title="Hal demikian disebabkan, bukan sekedar jarak waktu yang terlampau jauh antara “dulu” dengan “sekarang,” melainkan karena produk pemikiran klasik banyak yang tidak relevan dengan konteks sekarang, sehingga, jika tidak dikaji ulang secara kritis akan membahayakan masa depan umat Islam itu sendiri.">It thus induced, not just distance that is too much time between the "first" with "now," but because the product of classical thinking a lot that are not relevant to the current context, so that, if not critically re-examined will jeopardize the future of Islam itself. </span><span title="[2]">[2]<br />
</span><span title="Lebih dari itu, jika nalar klasik masih dikuduskan, maka sebagai akibatnya, umat Islam tidak akan pernah bisa bangkit dan maju untuk melakukan pembaharuan di segala bidang, sebagaimana yang dilakukan oleh Barat-Eropa selama ini.">Moreover, if the classical sense is still consecrated, then as a consequence, Muslims will never be able to get up and move for reform in all fields, as was done by Western-Europe so far. </span><span title="Hal demikian bukan berarti mengagung-agungkan nalar modern Barat-Eropa dan menjadikannya teladan utama untuk menggantikan nalar klasik Islam.">It thus is not meant to glorify the modern sense of Western-Europe and make it the ultimate example to replace the classical logic of Islam. </span><span title="Sama sekali tidak!">Absolutely not! </span><span title="Sebab, sikap dan tindakan demikian, jelas menunjukkan “kelatahan” yang tidak patut dibanggakan.">Therefore, the attitudes and actions thus, clearly indicate "kelatahan" are not to be proud of. </span><span title="Tetapi yang penting dicatat, bahwa umat Islam akan tetap terpuruk bahkan mati, jika tetap berada pada kesadaran masa lalu sementara mereka hidup di masa sekarang dengan problem dan tantangan yang jauh lebih kompleks dari apa yang dihadapi oleh ulama klasik berabad-abad yang lalu.">But what is important to note, that Muslims will remain collapsed even death, if it stays on the consciousness of the past while they live in the present with problems and challenges far more complex than what is faced by classical scholars centuries ago.<br />
</span><span title="B.">B. </span><span title="Relasi Author Teks dan Reader">Relationship Author Text and Reader<br />
</span><span title="Problematika mendasar dalam mengkaji hermeneutik adalah problem teks, baik teks historis maupun teks keagamaan, yang berkaitan dengan tradisi, di satu sisi, dan dengan pengarang di sisi lain.[3] Namun yang terpenting dari itu adalah bagaimana agar problem tersebut tidak mengacaukan relasi antara pengarang">The problems are fundamental in assessing the hermeneutic problem of text, both text historical and religious texts, relating to tradition, on the one hand, and with the author on the other. [3] But most of it is how that problem will not disrupt relations between the author </span><span title="(author), penafsir (reader) dengan teks, dalam dinamika pergumulan pemikiran hukum Islam khususnya dan pemikiran Islam umumnya.">(author), interpreter (reader) with the text, the dynamics of the struggle of Islamic legal thought in particular and Islamic thought generally. </span><span title="Terlebih lagi ketika persoalan tentang relasi triadic dengan realitas di mana masing-masing melakukan proses dialektik yang kreatif dan kritis.">Even more so when the question of the triadic relationship with the reality in which each of the dialectical process of creative and critical.<br />
</span><span title="Di saat proses pemahaman teks yang bersifat interpretative diklaim memiliki hanya satu penafsiran yang benar dan final, maka tindakan semacam ini berimplikasi pada pelanggaran integritas pengarang (author) dan bahkan integritas teks itu sendiri.">In the process of interpretative understanding of the text that is claimed to have only one true and final interpretation, then this kind of action implies a violation of the integrity of the author (author) and even the integrity of the text itself.<br />
</span><span title="Selanjutnya, bagaimana tokoh-tokoh hermeneutika kontemporer semisal William E.">Furthermore, how contemporary hermeneutics figures such as William E. </span><span title="Paden, Richard C.">Paden, Richard C. </span><span title="Martin, Shahrur, Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, dan Khaled Abou El-Fadl menerapkan basis pemikirannya?.">Martin, Shahrur, Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, and Khaled Abou El-Fadl apply the base thoughts?. </span><span title="Mereka dengan keras dan tajam mengkritik konservatisme pemikiran Islam dan berusaha mendekonstruksi hegemoni pemikiran klasik yang masih tertanam kuat dalam pengetahuan dan kesadaran umat Islam.">They loudly and sharply criticized the conservatism of Islamic thought and trying to deconstruct the hegemony of classical thought which is still firmly entrenched in knowledge and awareness of Muslims. </span><span title="Dengan lantang mereka menyerukan kepada segenap umat Islam untuk “membedah dan menguliti” pemikiran keislaman selama ini sampai ke akar-akarnya yang paling dalam, yakni sistem pemikiran (episteme) yang dianut umat Islam hingga sekarang ini.">With their loud calls upon all Muslims to "dissect and flay" Islamic thoughts during this down to the roots of the most within, that system of thought (episteme), which embraced Islam until now.<br />
</span><span title="William E.">William E. </span><span title="Paden">Paden<br />
</span><span title="Menunjukkan agama dengan sebutan proper noun seperti Islam, Katolik, Protestan, Hindu, dan Budha adalah sangat mudah, namun yang paling mendasar adalah apa bentuk abstrak noun dari macam-macam agama tersebut?">Demonstrate proper noun religions such as Islam, Catholicism, Protestantism, Hinduism, and Buddhism is very easy, but the most basic is what the abstract noun form of the various religions? </span><span title="Dalam bukunya Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion, Paden menawarkan metode melihat (viewing) agama melalui interpretasi yang sarat akan frames dari interpreter.[4]">In his book, Interpreting the Sacred: Ways of Viewing Religion, Paden offers a method of viewing (viewing) through interpretation of religion which will be full of frames from the interpreter. [4]<br />
</span><span title="Adanya “truth claim” (klaim kebenaran) yang seringkali melekat pada sebutan agama-agama, lantaran tidak tahu atau kurang dikenalnya wilayah abstrak noun yang menjadi landasan logis-ontologis bagi keberadaan masing-masing proper noun.">The existence of "truth claims" (claims of truth) that are often attached to the name of religions, because do not know or abstract noun less familiar territory that became the foundation for logical-ontological existence of each proper noun. </span><span title="Dari sini pula sebenarnya bermula kesulitan-kesulitan yang mengitari persoalan historis-pluralitas agama-agama yang dipeluk oleh berbagai macam golongan, kelompok dan sekte keagamaan pada level historis-empiris.">From here anyway actually began with the difficulties surrounding the question of the historical-religious plurality that is embraced by various groups, religious groups and sects in the historical-empirical level. </span><span title="Masing-masing mempunyai dimensi universal dan sekaligus partikular.">Each has at once particular and universal dimensions.<br />
</span><span title="Agama, menurut Paden, tidak hanya terbatas menerangkan hubungan antara manusia dan Tuhan-nya, tetapi juga melibatkan kesadaran berkelompok (sosiologis), kesadaran pencarian asal-usul agama (antropologis), pemenuhan kebutuhan untuk membentuk kepribadian yang kuat dan ketenangan jiwa (psikologis) bahkan">Religion, according to Paden, not just limited to explaining the relationship between man and his God, but also involves the awareness group (sociological), awareness of the origins of religious quest (anthropological), fulfilling the need to establish a strong personality and peace of mind (psychological) even </span><span title="ajaran agama tertentu dapat diteliti sejauh mana keterkaitan ajaran etikanya dengan corak pandangan hidup yang memberi dorongan kuat untuk memperoleh derajat kesejahteraan hidup yang optimal (ekonomi).[5]">certain religious teachings can be investigated the extent to which linkages with the ethical teachings of the view mode of life which gives a strong impetus to obtain the optimal degree of welfare (economic). [5]<br />
</span><span title="Dari sini tampak, bahwa fenomena “agama” memang perlu didekati secara multi-dimensional approaches.">From this it appears, that the phenomenon of "religion" does need to be approached in a multi-dimensional approaches. </span><span title="Untuk mengurangi beban kesulitan persoalan pluralitas agama, Paden menawarkan dua pendekatan (viewing) sebagai berikut:">To reduce the burden of difficult issues of religious plurality, Paden offers two approaches (viewing) as follows:<br />
</span><span title="Pertama, pendekatan antropologis terhadap fenomena keberagamaan manusia.">First, anthropological approach to the phenomenon of human religiosity. </span><span title="Pendekatan dan pemahaman terhadap fenomena keberagamaan manusia melalui antropologi, adalah dengan mendekati dan memahami “objek” agama dari berbagai sudut pengamatan yang berbeda-beda.">Approach and understanding of the phenomenon of human religiosity through anthropology, is to approach and understand the "object" of religion from different angles in different observations. </span><span title="Dari sini akan muncul pemahaman sosiologis, pemahaman historis, dan pemahaman psikologis terhadap fenomena keberagamaan manusia.[6]">From this will come an understanding of sociological, historical understanding, and understanding of the psychological phenomenon of human religiosity. [6]<br />
</span><span title="Kedua, pendekatan fenomenologis, yaitu suatu bentuk pendekatan keilmuan yang berusaha mencari hakekat atau esensi dari apa yang ada dibalik segala macam bentuk manifestasi agama dalam kehidupan manusia.">Second, a phenomenological approach, which is a form of scientific approach that seeks the essence or the essence of what is behind all forms of manifestation of religion in human life. </span><span title="Pendekatan fenomenologis sangat penting lantaran dari sinilah sebenarnya pluralitas umat beragama dapat dipahami seutuhnya, sehingga tidak perlu memunculkan konflik yang tidak berarti antar berbagai pemahaman dan penghayatan terhadap agama tertentu.">Phenomenological approach is very important because this is where the actual plurality of religious communities can be understood completely, so no need to bring the conflict that does not mean among different understanding and appreciation of a particular religion. </span><span title="(lebih mendalam akan dijelaskan pada bab tersendiri).[7]">(More profound will be described in a separate chapter). [7]<br />
</span><span title="Kerja sama antara kedua pendekatan ini bersifat saling melengkapi dan saling memperkokoh sehingga diharapkan dapat diperoleh gambaran yang utuh tentang keberagamaan manusia pada umumnya, tanpa mengurangi apresiasi terhadap bentuk keimanan yang bersifat partikularistik-historis-eksklusif.">Cooperation between the two approaches are complementary and reinforce each other so that expected can be obtained complete picture of human diversity in general, without prejudice to the appreciation of the form of faith that are particularistic-historical-exclusive.<br />
</span><span title="Dengan demikian, pendekatan teologis semata-mata tidaklah cukup untuk melihat fenomena keberagamaan manusia secara umum.">Thus, the theological approach simply is not enough to see the phenomenon of human religiosity in general. </span><span title="Karena pendekatan teologi pada akhirnya hanya menumbuhkan “truth claim”.">Because the approach to theology in the end only cultivate the "truth claims".<br />
</span><span title="Paden juga menggambarkan beberapa teori dalam berbagai penelitian antropologi agama dapat ditemukan adanya hubungan yang positif antara kepercayaan agama dengan kondisi ekonomi dan politik.">Paden also illustrates some of the theories in a variety of anthropological study of religion can be found a positive relationship between religious beliefs with economic and political conditions.<br />
</span><span title="Pertama, Karl Marx (1818-1883), melihat agama sebagai opium atau candu masyarakat tertentu sehingga mendorongnya untuk memperkenalkan teori konflik atau pertentangan kelas.">First, Karl Marx (1818-1883), saw religion as the opium poppy or a particular community that prompted him to introduce the theory of class conflict or disagreement. </span><span title="Menurutnya, agama bisa di salah fungsikan oleh kalangan tertentu untuk melestarikan status quo peran tokoh-tokoh agama yang mendukung sistem kapitalisme di Eropa yang beragama Kristen.[8]">According to him, in any religion can enable by certain circles to preserve the status quo of the role of religious leaders that support the capitalist system in Europe that the Christian religion. [8]<br />
</span><span title="Golongan masyarakat yang kurang mampu dan golongan miskin, pada umumnya lebih tertarik kepada gerakan keagamaan yang bersifat messianis, yang menjanjikan perubahan tatanan sosial kemasyarakatan.">Underprivileged segments of society and the poor, are generally more attracted to is messianic religious movement, which promises to change the social order. </span><span title="Sedangkan golongan orang kaya lebih cenderung untuk mempertahankan tatanan masyarakat yang sudah mapan secara ekonomi lantaran menguntungkan pihaknya.">While the class of the rich are more likely to maintain the established order of society which is economically beneficial because of it.<br />
</span><span title="Kedua, Max Weber (1964-1920).[9] Dia melihat adanya korelasi positif antara ajaran protestan dengan munculnya semangat kapitalisme modern.">Second, Max Weber (1964-1920). [9] He saw a positive correlation between the Protestant doctrine with the advent of the spirit of modern capitalism. </span><span title="Etika protestan dilihatnya sebagai cikal bakal etos kerja masyarakat industri modern yang kapitalistik.">Protestant ethic seen as a forerunner to the work ethic of modern industrial capitalist society. </span><span title="Selanjutnya, Clifford Geertz dalam karyanya The Religion of Java melihat adanya klasifikasi sosial dalam masyarakat muslin jawa, antara santri, priyayi dan abangan.">Furthermore, Clifford Geertz in his work The Religion of Java see any social classification in muslin Java community, between students, gentry and abangan. </span><span title="Meskipun hasil penelitian antropologis di Jawa Timur ini mendapat sanggahan dari berbagai ilmuwan sosial yang lain.">Although the results of anthropological research in East Java received a rebuttal from a variety of other social scientists.<br />
</span><span title="Ketiga, Sigmun Freud (1856-1939), adanya keterkaitan antara agama dan psikoterapi.">Third, Sigmun Freud (1856-1939), an association between religion and psychotherapy. </span><span title="Freud mengaitkan agama dengan Oedipus kompleks, yaitu pengalaman infantile seorang anak yang tidak berdaya dihadapkan kekuatan dan kekuasaan bapaknya.">Freud associate religion with the Oedipus complex, the infantile experience of a child who is helpless faced with strength and power of his father. </span><span title="Dalam psikoanalisisnya, Freud mengungkapkan hubungan antara Id, Ego, dan Super Ego.[10] Temuannya ini memberi “warning” terhadap beberapa kasus keberagamaan tertentu yang lebih terkait pada patologi sosial maupun kejiwaan.">In psychoanalysis, Freud reveals the relationship between the Id, Ego, and Super Ego. [10] These findings give a "warning" against some specific religious cases are more related to social and psychological pathology.<br />
</span><span title="Jika Freud oleh beberapa kalangan dianggap terlalu minor melihat fenomena keberagamaan manusia, lain halnya dengan ahli psikoanalisa, CG">If Freud was by some considered too minor to see the phenomenon of human religiosity, another case with expert psychoanalysis, CG </span><span title="Jung,[11] yang justru malah menemukan hasil psikoanalisisnya yang berbalik arah dari apa yang ditemukan oleh Freud.">Jung, [11] which actually even find the results of psychoanalysis who turned the direction of what was discovered by Freud. </span><span title="Menurutnya, ada korelasi yang sangat positif antara agama dan kesehatan mental.[12]">According to him, there is a very positive correlation between religion and mental health. [12]<br />
</span><span title="Richard C.">Richard C. </span><span title="Martin">Martin<br />
</span><span title="Gambaran fenomena manusia beragama, sebenarnya tidaklah sesederhana dan semudah seperti yang biasa dibayangkan oleh banyak orang.">Picture of the human phenomenon of religion, is actually not as simple and as easy as it is commonly imagined by many people. </span><span title="Teori-teori historis-empiris yang muncul dari pendekatan sosiologis dan psikologis, mengarah pada cara pandang yang bersifat projeksionis, yakni sesuatu cara telaah yang melihat “agama”, hanya sebagai fenomena sosial belaka, sehingga kehilangan nuansa kesakralan, kesucian serta normativitasnya.[13]">Historical theories that emerged from empirical sociological and psychological approaches, leading to a worldview which is projeksionis, namely how to study something to see "religion", just as a mere social phenomenon, thus losing the feel of the sanctity, purity and normativitasnya. [13]<br />
</span><span title="Keprihatinan tersebut selanjutnya menuntut pendekatan baru, yaitu fenomenologi.">Concern is further demanded a new approach, namely phenomenology. </span><span title="Dalam era pluralitas agama, menurut Richard C.">In an era of religious plurality, according to Richard C. </span><span title="Martin, pendekatan fenomenologi dapat memberi sumbangan yang cukup berharga bagi studi agama.">Martin, the phenomenological approach can contribute quite valuable for the study of religion. </span><span title="Pendekatan ini berusaha memperoleh gambaran yang lebih utuh dan yang lebih fundamental tentang fenomena keberagamaan manusia.">This approach seeks to obtain a more complete and more fundamentally about the phenomenon of human religiosity. </span><span title="fenomenologi ini diilhami oleh cara pendekatan filosofis yang dikembangkan oleh Edmund Husserl, yang berupaya untuk memperoleh “esensi” keberagamaan manusia.">phenomenology was inspired by the philosophical approach developed by Edmund Husserl, who seeks to obtain "essence" of human diversity. </span><span title="usaha pendekatan fenomenologi ini mengarahkan ke arah balik, yaitu untuk mengembalikan studi agama yang bersifat historis-empiris ke pangkalnya agar tidak terlalu jauh melampaui batas-batas kewenangannya.">This phenomenological approach directing efforts toward the back, which is to restore the study of religion which is the historical-empirical to the hilt so that not too far beyond the limits of their authority. </span><span title="Dengan pendekatan fenomenologi, truth claim, yang menjadi ciri khas pemikiran teologis, secara relatif akan dapat terkendali.">With the approach of phenomenology, truth claim, which is characteristic of theological thought, in relative terms will be restrained.<br />
</span><span title="Pusat perhatian pendekatan fenomenologi, sebenarnya terbatas pada pencarian “esensi”, “makna”, dan “struktur fundamental” dari pengalaman keberagamaan manusia.[14] Di dalam pengalaman manusia ada esensi yang irreducible dan itulah struktur fundamental manusia beragama.">Phenomenological approach to the limelight, in fact confined to the quest "essence", "meaning", and "fundamental structure" of human religious experience. [14] In the essence of human experience there are irreducible and that the fundamental structure of human religion. </span><span title="Rudolf Otto menemukan “wholly other” suatu perasaan yang benar-benar lain, mengagumkan, mengharukan, menarik dan menggetarkan jiwa keberagamaan seseorang.">Rudolf Otto found the "wholly other" a feeling that the other really, awesome, touching, exciting and soulful religious person. </span><span title="G.">G. </span><span title="Van Der Leeuw, lebih menekankan ketergantungan seseorang pada zat yang Maha kuasa (power).">Van Der Leeuw, further emphasizing a person's dependency on substances that Supreme power (power). </span><span title="Mircea Eliade menggarisbawahi sesuatu “yang suci” (the sacred) yang tidak bisa lepas dari fenomena beragama manusia.[15]">Mircea Eliade underscores something "holy" (the sacred) that can not be separated from human religious phenomena. [15]<br />
</span><span title="Itulah diantaranya hal-hal yang dianggap fundamental oleh pendekatan fenomenologi ketika berhadapan dengan realitas pengalaman keberagamaan manusia.">That's among the things that are considered fundamental by the phenomenological approach when dealing with the reality of human religious experience. </span><span title="Artinya, bahwa setiap struktur fundamental pengalaman beragama manusia, sifat-sifat dasar tersebut selalu ada di dalamnya.">This means that any fundamental structure of human religious experience, the basic properties are always in it.<br />
</span><span title="Jika pendekatan teologi cenderung menekankan truth claim yang berimplikasi pada penyekatan atau pengkotak-kotakan pemahaman, maka fenomenologi terbebas dari tuntutan dan implikasi seperti itu, tanpa perlu terjerat oleh bentuk “formal” kelembagaan agama tertentu.">If this approach tends to emphasize the truth claims of theology which implies the insulation or divisions of understanding, then the phenomenology freed from the demands and implications like that, without the need ensnared by the form of "formal" institutional religion. </span><span title="Fenomenologi berusaha memperoleh gambaran yang utuh serta struktur fundamental dari keberagamaan manusia secara umum (uneversal, transendental, inklusif), dan bukannya gambaran yang bersifat partikular-ekskluisif.">Phenomenology trying to get the whole picture as well as the fundamental structure of human diversity in general (uneversal, transcendental, inclusive), and instead of a picture that is particular-ekskluisif.<br />
</span><span title="Muhammad Shahrur">Muhammad Shahrur<br />
</span><span title="Muhammad Shahrur, pemikir liberal kontroversial dari Syria yang dijuluki sebagai “Immanuel Kant”-nya dunia Arab dan “Martin Luther”-nya dunia Islam adalah salah seorang intelektual yang memiliki kesadaran kritis terhadap keterpurukan dan kemandegan umat Islam yang masih mengkuduskan nalar klasik yang tidak relevan">Muhammad Shahrur, controversial liberal thinkers of Syria, dubbed as "Immanuel Kant" was the Arab world and "Martin Luther" of the Islamic world is an intellectual who has a critical awareness of the deterioration and stagnation of Muslims who are sanctified classical reasoning is irrelevant </span><span title="dengan realitas sekarang.[16]">with the present reality. [16]<br />
</span><span title="Persoalan mendasar yang memunculkan kegelisahan Shahrur untuk melakukan kajian keislaman, adalah realitas masyarakat Islam kontemporer dan realitas doktrin tradisi (turas) dalam Islam.">Fundamental problems that gave rise to anxiety Shahrur to conduct a study of Islam, is the reality of contemporary society and the reality of the doctrine of Islamic tradition (turas) in Islam. </span><span title="Shahrur melihat bahwa komunitas Muslim saat ini masih terpolarisasi ke dalam dua kubu.">Shahrur see that the Muslim community is still polarized into two camps. </span><span title="Pertama, mereka yang berpegang secara ketat kepada arti literal dari tradisi.">First, those who adhere strictly to the literal meaning of tradition. </span><span title="Kedua, mereka yang cenderung menyerukan sekularisme dan modernitas serta menolak semua warisan Islam termasuk Al-Qur'an sebagai bagian dari tradisi yang diwarisi.">Secondly, those who tend to call for secularism and modernity and reject all of Islamic heritage, including the Al-Quran as part of an inherited tradition. </span><span title="Tokoh-tokoh dalam kelompok ini adalah Marxian, Komunis, dan lain-lain.[17]">The characters in this group is Marxian, Communists, and others. [17]<br />
</span><span title="Menurut Shahrur, dua kelompok ini telah gagal memenuhi janji mereka untuk menyediakan modernitas kepada masyarakatnya.">According Shahrur, two groups have failed to fulfill their promise to provide modernity to the people. </span><span title="Kegagalan dua kubu inilah yang kemudian memunculkan kelompok ketiga, dan Shahrur mengklaim dirinya dalam kelompok ini, yang menyerukan kembali kepada al-tanzil, dengan paradigma baru dengan semangat “perlakukanlah al-Qur'an seolah-olah ia baru saja diwahyukan dan Nabi Muhammad baru meninggal">The failure of the two camps is then led to the third group, and Shahrur claim in this group, which calls back to al-revelations, with a new paradigm with the spirit of "treat the Koran as if he had just been revealed and the Prophet Muhammad's death </span><span title="kemarin”.[18]">yesterday ". [18]<br />
</span><span title="Pemahaman semacam ini meniscayakan untuk memahami al-Qur'an sesuai dengan konteks di mana mereka hidup dan menghilangkan keterjebakan pada produk-produk pemikiran masa lalu.[19] Muslim modern, dengan demikian lebih qualified untuk memahami al-Qur'an sesuai tujuan dan realitas">Such understanding necessitates to understand the Qur'an in accordance with the context in which they live and eliminate keterjebakan thoughts on the products of the past. [19] a modern Muslim, thus more qualified to understand the Qur'an according to the goals and realities </span><span title="modern yang melingkupinya.">modern surrounding. </span><span title="Dengan kata lain, Shahrur hendak menyatakan bahwa otoritas pemahaman atas pesan-pesan Ilahi terletak di atas pundak generasi saat ini, bukan menjadi tanggungjawab generasi pada abad ke-7 ataupun generasi ulama pemimpin sebelumnya.">In other words, states that the authority would Shahrur understanding of divine messages lies on the shoulders of the current generation, not the responsibility of generation in the 7th century or earlier generations of clergy leaders.<br />
</span><span title="Realitas historis pada abad ke-7 ketika al-Qur'an turun, merupakan salah satu bentuk interaksi dan upaya penafsiran, yang tentunya bukan sebagai produk yang final.">Historical reality in the 7th century when the Koran down, is one form of interaction and interpretation effort, which is certainly not as a final product. </span><span title="Semua tindakan tersebut mengandung nilai tradisi kecuali aspek-aspek ibadah[20], Hudud, dan al-sirat al-mustaqim[21] yang tidak terikat ruang dan waktu.">All actions except those containing the value of tradition aspects of worship [20], Hudud, and al-Sirat al-Mustaqim [21] which is not bound to space and time.<br />
</span><span title="Namun demikian, Shahrur bukanlah pemikir “latah” yang hanya bisa melempar “bola panas” pemikiran ke tengah-tengah masyarakat tanpa dasar pengetahuan yang kokoh sebagaimana banyak dilakukan oleh “pemikir” lain.">However, Shahrur not a thinker "talkative" who can only throw "hot ball" of thought into the midst of a society without a solid knowledge base as much done by the "thinker" other. </span><span title="Setidaknya, dalam empat bukunya, al-Kitab wa al-Qur'an: Qira'ah Mu'ashirah (1994), Durasah Islamiyah Mu'asirah fi al-Daulah wa al-Mujtama' (1994), al-Islam wa al-">At least, in four of his book, al-Qur'an wa al-Book: Qira'ah Mu'ashirah (1994), Durasah Mu'asirah Islamiyah fi al-Daula wa al-Mujtama '(1994), al-Islam wa al- </span><span title="Iman: Manzumat al-qiyam (1996), dan Nahwu Ushul Jadidah li al-Fiqh al-Islamy: Fiqh al-Mar'ah (2000) tampak keseriusan Shahrur dalam menggarap dan menuntaskan gagasannya.">Faith: Manzumat praying qiyaam al (1996), and li jadidah Nahwu Usul al-Fiqh al-Islamy: Fiqh al-mar'ah (2000) looked Shahrur seriousness in working on and finalizing ideas.<br />
</span><span title="Dalam buku-buku itu ia meramu gagasannya dengan filsafat yang ia gali dari para filosof Barat dan Timur, seperti Kant, Hegel, Karl Marx, AN">In the books that he concocted the idea with the philosophy that he dug from the Western and Eastern philosophers, like Kant, Hegel, Karl Marx, AN </span><span title="Whithead, Ibn Rusyd, Charles Darwin, Isaanc Newton, al-Farabi, al-Jurjani, F.">Whithead, Ibn Rushd, Charles Darwin, Newton Isaanc, al-Farabi, al-Jurjani, F. </span><span title="de Saussure, Izutsu, W.">de Saussure, Izutsu, W. </span><span title="Fichte, F.">Fichte, F. </span><span title="Fukuyama, dll.">Fukuyama, etc.. </span><span title="Dari mereka-lah, Shahrur merefleksikan dan menghasilkan gagasan yang bernas dan mencengangkan.">Of them was, Shahrur reflect and generate ideas that pithy and surprising. </span><span title="Lebih jauh dari itu, Shahrur juga melengkapi piranti metodologinya dengan matematika modern.">Furthermore, Shahrur also complements the methodology with the tools of modern mathematics. </span><span title="Sehingga tidaklah berlebihan jika Andreas Cristmann menyatakan bahwa Shahrur sebenarnya menggunakan pendekatan defamiliarization (penidakbiaasaan); karena pemikiran Shahrur memang “asing” bagi telinga yang sudah sesak dan penuh dengan wacana ortodoks klasik.[22]">So it is no exaggeration if Andreas Cristmann states that actually use the approach Shahrur defamiliarization (penidakbiaasaan); because Shahrur thought it "strange" for the ears that have been crowded and filled with classical orthodox discourse. [22]<br />
</span><span title="Salah satu kontribusi Shahrur dalam kajian fikih kontemporer adalah teori limit (nadzariyyat al-hudûd).">One of the contributions Shahrur in contemporary jurisprudence is the study of the theory of limits (nadzariyyat al-hudûd). </span><span title="Melalui al-Kitâb wal Qur'ân: Qirâ'ah Mu`âshirah, Shahrur menegaskan bahwa teori limit merupakan salah satu pendekatan dalam berijtihad, yang digunakan dalam mengkaji ayat-ayat muhkamât (ayat-ayat yang berisi pesan hukum) dalam Al-Qur'">Through the Book wal al-Qur'ân: Qirâ'ah Mu `âshirah, Shahrur asserts that the theory of limits is one approach in the diligence, which is used in assessing muhkamât verses (verses that contains a message of law) in Al-Qur ' </span><span title="an.">an. </span><span title="Terma limit (hudûd) yang digunakan Shahrur mengacu pada pengertian “batas-batas ketentuan Allah yang tidak boleh dilanggar, tapi di dalamnya terdapat wilayah ijtihad yang bersifat dinamis, fleksibel, dan elastis.”[23] Ia menyatakan bahwa Allah telah menetapkan konsep-konsep">Terma limit (hudûd) used Shahrur refers to the notion of "limits of God's provision that should not be violated, but in it there is the ijtihad that is dynamic, flexible, and elastic." [23] He states that God has established concepts </span><span title="hukum yang maksimum dan yang minimum, “al-istiqamah” (starightness) dan “al-hanifiyyah” (curvature), sedangkan ijtihad manusia bergerak dalam dua batasan tersebut.[24]">the legal maximum and the minimum, "al-istiqamah" (starightness) and "al-hanifiyyah" (curvature), while engaged in two human ijtihad these limits. [24]<br />
</span><span title="Teori limit ini memberikan empat kontribusi signifikan dalam pengayaan bidang fikih.">Limit theory makes four significant contributions to the enhancement of Jurisprudence. </span><span title="Pertama, dengan teori limit, Shahrur telah berhasil melakukan pergeseran paradigma (paradigm shift) yang sangat fundamental di bidang fikih.">First, the theory of limits, Shahrur has managed to do a paradigm shift (paradigm shift) that is very fundamental in the field of jurisprudence. </span><span title="Selama ini, pengertian hudûd dipahami para ahli fikih secara rigid sebagai ayat-ayat dan hadis-hadis yang berisi sanksi hukum (al-`uqûbât) yang tidak boleh ditambah atau dikurangi dari ketentuannya yang termaktub, seperti sanksi potong tangan bagi pencuri, cambuk 100 kali">During this time, the notion hudûd jurists understood as rigid as the verses and hadiths that contain sanctions law (al-`uqûbât) that should not be added to or subtracted from the provisions set forth, such as hand amputation for theft, 100 lashes </span><span title="bagi pelaku zina belum berkeluarga, dan lain sebagainya.">for adultery, and so forth. </span><span title="Sedangkan teori limit (nadzariyyat al-hudûd) yang ditawarkan Shahrur cenderung bersifat dinamis-kontekstual, dan tidak hanya menyangkut masalah sanksi hukum (al-`uqûbât), namun juga menyangkut aturan-aturan hukum lainnya, seperti (perempuan, poligami, waris, riba">While the theory of limits (nadzariyyat al-hudûd) offered Shahrur tend to be dynamic and contextual, and not only in regards to legal punishment (al-`uqûbât), but also about other legal rules, such as (women, polygamy, inheritance, usury </span><span title=", dll.)[25]">, etc.). [25]<br />
</span><span title="Kedua, teori limit Shahrur menawarkan ketentuan batas minimum (al-hadd al-adnâ) dan batas maksimum (al-hadd al-a`lâ).">Second, the theory of limits Shahrur offers minimum provisions (al-hadd al-Adna) and maximum (al-hadd al-a `la). </span><span title="Artinya, hukum-hukum Allah diposisikan bersifat elastis, sepanjang tetap berada di antara batas yang telah ditentukan.">That is, the laws of God are positioned to be elastic, long remain in between the specified limits. </span><span title="Wilayah ijitihad manusia, menurut Shahrur berada di antara batas minimum dan maksimum itu.">Human ijitihad region, according to Shahrur is between the minimum and maximum limits.<br />
</span><span title="Elastisitas dan fleksibilitas hukum Allah tampak pada kasus pakaian perempuan (libâs al-mar'ah), Shahrur berpendapat bahwa batas minimum pakaian perempuan adalah satr al-juyûb (QS al-Nur: 31) atau menutup bagian dada (payudara), kemaluan, dan">The elasticity and flexibility of the law of God seen in the case of women's clothing (libas al-mar'ah), Shahrur argued that the minimum threshold is a women's clothing satr al-juyub (Sura al-Nur: 31) or closing the chest (breasts), and </span><span title="tidak bertelanjang bulat.">not bare round. </span><span title="Batas maksimumnya adalah menutup sekujur anggota tubuh, kecuali dua telapak tangan dan wajah.">Limit is the maximum cover their whole body, except the two hands and face. </span><span title="Dalam hal ini, perempuan yang memakai jilbab model “jilbab gaul”, sesungguhnya telah memenuhi ketentuan Allah, sebab masih berada pada wilayah di antara batas minimum dan maksimum tadi.">In this case, women who wear headscarf model "hijab slang", actually has complied with God, for it is still in the area between the minimum and maximum limits. </span><span title="Sebaliknya, perempuan yang menutup sekujur tubuhnya (termasuk wajah, dengan cadar misalnya) dianggap telah keluar dari hudûd Allâh (batasan-batasan Allah), karena melebihi batas maksimum yang ditentukan Al-Qur'an.[26]">Conversely, women who cover their whole body (including the face veil for example) is considered to have been out of hudûd Allah (Allah's limits), because it exceeds the specified maximum limit of the Qur'an. [26]<br />
</span><span title="Ketiga, dengan teori limit, Shahrur telah melakukan dekonstruksi dan rekonstruksi terhadap metodologi ijtihad hukum, utamanya terhadap ayat-ayat hudûd yang selama ini diklaim sebagai ayat-ayat muhkamât yang bersifat pasti dan hanya mengandung penafsiran tunggal.[27] Melalui teori limit, Shahrur ingin">Third, the theory of limits, Shahrur deconstructed and reconstructed the methodology of ijtihad, mainly against hudûd verses that have been claimed as muhkamât verses that are definite and contain only a single interpretation. [27] Through the theory of limits, Shahrur want </span><span title="melakukan pembacaan ayat-ayat muhkamât secara produktif dan prospektif (qirâ'ah muntijah), bukan pembacaan repetitif dan restrospektif (qirâ'ah mutakarrirah).">a reading verses muhkamât productively and reading (qirâ'ah muntijah), rather than repetitive and retrospective readings (qirâ'ah mutakarrirah).<br />
</span><span title="Keempat, dengan teori limit, Shahrur ingin membuktikan bahwa ajaran Islam benar-benar merupakan ajaran yang relevan untuk tiap ruang dan waktu.">Fourth, the theory of limits, Shahrur want to prove that Islam is really a doctrine that are relevant to each space and time. </span><span title="Shahrur berasumsi, kelebihan risalah Islam adalah bahwa di dalamnya terkandung dua aspek gerak, yaitu gerak konstan (istiqâmah) serta gerak dinamis dan lentur (hanîfiiyah).">Shahrur assumed, the excess message of Islam is that it contains two aspects of motion, that motion is constant (istiqâmah) and a dynamic and flexible (hanîfiiyah). </span><span title="Sifat kelenturan Islam ini berada dalam bingkai teori limit yang oleh Shahrur dipahami sebagai the bounds or restrictions that God has placed on mans freedom of action (batasan yang telah ditempatkan Tuhan pada wilayah kebebasan manusia).[28]">Islamic elastic properties are located within the frame theory limit by Shahrur understood as the bounds or restrictions That God has placed on mans freedom of action (the Lord has placed restrictions on the freedom of man). [28]<br />
</span><span title="Kerangka analisis teori limit yang berbasis dua karakter utama ajaran Islam ini (aspek yang konstan starightness dan yang lentur curvature) akan membuat Islam tetap survive sepanjang zaman.">Analytical framework based on the theory of limits of two main characters are the teachings of Islam (the constant starightness and the flexible curvature) would make Islam's survival. </span><span title="Dua hal yang beroposisi secara linier itu kemudian melahirkan gerak dialektik (al-harakah al-jadaliyah) dalam pengetahuan dan ilmu-ilmu sosial.">Two things that oppose it and then gave birth to a linear motion of the dialectic (al-al-jadaliyah harakah) in knowledge and social sciences. </span><span title="Dari situlah diharapkan lahir paradigma baru dalam pembuatan legislasi hukum Islam (tasyrî'), sehingga memungkinkan terciptanya dialektika dan perkembangan sistem hukum Islam secara terus-menerus">From there a new paradigm is expected in the Islamic legal legislation (tasyri '), thereby enabling the creation and development of the dialectic of the Islamic legal system continuously<br />
</span><span title="Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd">Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd<br />
</span><span title="Semangat yang menggelayuti upaya yang dilakukan Abu Zayd tidak berbeda dengan Shahrur, yaitu mengkaji tradisi dan realitas, khususnya tradisi keagamaan (al-turas al-dini).">Spirit clung efforts by Abu Zayd did not differ with Shahrur, which examines the tradition and reality, in particular religious tradition (al-al-turas early). </span><span title="Dengan menggunakan “analisis wacana” sebagai perangkat metodologinya.">By using the "discourse analysis" as a methodological device. </span><span title="Melalui beberapa karyanya, seperti al-Imam al-Syafi'I wa Ta'sis al-Idiyulujiyyah al-Wasathiyah (Imam Syafi'i: Moderatisme, Eklektisisme, Arabisme: 1997), Al-Nass al-Sulthah wa al-Haqiqah (Teks">Through some of his works, such as al-Imam al-Shafi'i al-Idiyulujiyyah Ta'sis wa al-Wasatiyah (Imam Shafi'i: Moderatisme, eclecticism, Arabism: 1997), Al-Nass al-Sulthah wa al-haqiqah (Text </span><span title=", Otoritas, Kebenaran: 2003), dan Naqd al-Khithab al-Diny (Kritik Wacana Agama: 2003), Abu Zayd berusaha melakukan pembongkaran terhadap struktur wacana melalui penelanjangan terhadap akar-akarnya, yang diklaim bahwa wacana itu merupakan produk langsung dari teks keagamaan">, Authority, Truth: 2003), and al-Khithab naqd al-Diny (Critique of Religious Discourse: 2003), Abu Zayd attempted demolition of the structure of discourse through the nakedness of the roots, which claimed that the discourse was a direct product of religious texts </span><span title=".[29]">. [29]<br />
</span><span title="Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd membuktikan bahwa aktifitas akademik yang dikerjakan para sarjana Muslim adalah pembacaan repetitive (al-qira'ah al-mutakarrirah), Abu Zayd mengkritisinya dengan istilah pembacaan ideologis tendensius (al-qira'ah al-mugridah al-mulawwanah) dan pembacaan">Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd prove that the academic activities undertaken Muslim scholars are reading repetitive (al-al-mutakarrirah qira'ah), Abu Zayd criticized by ideologically tendentious reading of the term (al-al-mugridah qira'ah al-mulawwanah) and readings </span><span title="yang a-historis (al-qira'ah la al-tarikhiyyah).">The a-historical (al-al-la qira'ah tarikhiyyah). </span><span title="Sebagai tawarannya Abu Zayd mengusulkan pembacaan produktif-hermeneutis (al-qira'ah al-muntijah).[30]">As Abu Zayd proposes his offer productive readings-hermeneutical (al-al-muntijah qira'ah). [30]<br />
</span><span title="Untuk menghindarkan teks dari manipulasi ideologis semacam ini, Abu Zayd mengusulkan teori penafsiran yang berpijak pada interaksi yang diciptakan teks dengan sistem budaya.">To prevent text from this kind of ideological manipulation, Abu Zayd proposed the theory of interpretation which is based on the interaction of text created by the culture system. </span><span title="Pendekatan hermeneutic yang dianjurkan Abu Zayd terdiri dari dua langkah yang berdialektika satu sama lain.">Hermeneutic approach advocated Abu Zayd consists of two steps dialectic with each other. </span><span title="Pertama, perlu menemukan kembali “makna asal” (dalalah al-ashliyyah) dari teks dan sekaligus juga unsur budaya dengan menempatkannya di dalam konteks sosio-historis kemunculannya.[31] Dalam berinteraksi dengan teks (turats), seorang mufassir seharusnya mempertimbangkan historisitas teks.">First, the need to rediscover "the meaning of origin" (al-ashliyyah dalalah) of text and cultural elements as well as by placing it within the socio-historical context of its emergence. [31] In interacting with text (turats), an exegete should consider the historicity of the text. </span><span title="[32] Artinya menempatkan teks pada konteksnya dalam upaya menyingkap makna yang asli, kemudian memasuki konteks histories, dan selanjutnya konteks bahasa yang khusus dari teks-teks tersebut.">[32] This means putting the text in its context in an effort to uncover the original meaning, then entered the historical context, and further language specific context of the texts. </span><span title="Jadi, makna adalah pengertian historis dari konteks pembentukan dan strukturisasinya.[33]">Thus, the meaning is the sense of historical context and strukturisasinya formation. [33]<br />
</span><span title="Kedua, signifikansi (magza), yaitu mengkontekstualisasikan makna historis teks tersebut ke dalam realitas sosial-budaya pembaca.">Second, the significance (magza), which is historically contextualize the meaning of the text into the socio-cultural reality of the reader. </span><span title="Untuk mengklarifikasi berbagai bingkai sosio-cultural sekarang ini dan tujuan praktisnya mendorong dan mengarahkan berbagai penafsiran, sehingga dapat membedakan kandungan idiologis interpretasi dari makna orisinal historisnya.">To clarify the various socio-cultural frame current and practical purpose of encouraging and directing a variety of interpretations, so as to distinguish the ideological content of the interpretation of the original historical meaning.<br />
</span><span title="Sebuah pembacaan “produktif” dihasilkan ketika dua langkah ini didialektikkan secara terus menerus dan tanpa henti, “sebuah gerakan pendulum antara dimensi orisinil (ashl) dan tujuan (ghayah), atau antara tanda (dalalah) dan signifikansi (maghza).[34] Tanpa">A reading of "productive" is produced when these two steps didialektikkan continually and without ceasing, "a pendulum movement between the original dimensions (ashl) and destination (ghayah), or between the sign (dalalah) and significance (maghza). [34] No </span><span title="dua gerakan diatas, antara makna dan signifikansi, kedua-duanya akan saling mengintimidasi dan pembacaan akan saling menjauh dari wawasan yang diinginkan dan akan jatuh pada tendensi (talwin).">two movements above, between meaning and significance, both to intimidate each other and reading each other away from the insight that people want and will fall on the mainstream (Talwin).<br />
</span><span title="Khaled Abou El-Fadl dan Kritiknya">Khaled Abou El-Fadl and criticism<br />
</span><span title="Menurutnya, ulama Islam (konservatif) yang mengklaim memiliki otoritas keagamaan sekaligus “wakil” Tuhan di bumi, tidak lain hanyalah para “penjaga gawang kebenaran” yang tidak menemukan basis epistemologisnya dalam realitas dalam hal penafsiran dan pemikiran keagamaan.">According to him, Islamic scholars (conservative) who claim to have religious authority as well as "representatives" of God on earth, nothing but the 'keeper of truth "which finds no basis in reality in terms of epistemological interpretation and religious thought. </span><span title="Khaled Abou El-Fadl menjelaskan bahwa anggapan ulama yang mempunyai kekuasaan atau otoritas[35] Tuhan (author) oleh pembaca (reader) adalah tindakan despotisme dan sekaligus bentuk penyelewengan (corruption) yang nyata dari logika hukum Islam yang harus diluruskan oleh komunitas penafsir (community">Khaled Abou El-Fadl explains that much of what scholars who have the power or authority [35] Lord (author) by the readers (reader) is an act of despotism and simultaneously forms diversion (corruption) of the real logic of Islamic law to be straightened by a community of interpreters (community </span><span title="of interpreters).">of interpreters).<br />
</span><span title="Akibatnya, jika makna teks hanya difahami secara sepihak dengan asumsi bahwa pembaca (reader) merasa diberi mandat dan kuasa penuh untuk menggantikan peran pengarang (author) dan sekaligus menghilangkan integritas teks, maka yang dihasilkan adalah bentuk “interpretive despotism” (kesewenang-wenangan penafsiran)">Consequently, if the text's meaning is understood only unilaterally assuming that the reader (reader) was given the mandate and full power to replace the role of the author (author) and simultaneously eliminate the integrity of the text, then the resulting is a form of "interpretive despotism" (arbitrary interpretation) </span><span title=".">. </span><span title="Inilah yang dimaksud Abou El-Fadl dengan “otoritarianisme“, yaitu tindakan yang membatasi maksud Tuhan (the will of the Divine) atas teks.">This is what Abou El-Fadl with "authoritarianism", ie measures that limit the purpose of God (the Will of the Divine) of the text.<br />
</span><span title="Padahal menurut Abou El-Fadl; “…..Ketika lingkungan sosial berubah dan berkembang, peran berbagai riwayat tersebut juga berubah dan berkembang.">Yet according to Abou El-Fadl: "... .. When the social environment change and evolve, the role of various history is also changing and evolving. </span><span title="Sebuah riwayat yang mungkin memiliki dampak yang kecil pada suatu zaman akan memiliki dampak yang sangat besar pada zaman lain.">A history that may have little impact on an era will have an enormous impact on other days. </span><span title="Sebuah riwayat yang dipandang dapat dipercaya pada suatu zaman kemungkinan menjadi tidak dapat dipercaya pada zaman lain“[36]">A history that is deemed credible in an age likely to be unreliable in another era "[36]<br />
</span><span title="Untuk itu, yang diperlukan adalah selalu melakukan proses negosiasi (negotiating process) secara terus-menerus dan timbal balik tidak hanya antara komunitas penafsir (community of interpreters), tetapi juga interaksi hidup antara pengarang (author), teks, dan pembaca (reader).">For that, what is needed is always doing the negotiation process (Negotiating process) continuously and reciprocity not only between the interpreter community (community of interpreters), but also live interaction between the author (author), text, and readers (reader). </span><span title="Mengingat kompleksnya persoalan yang dihadapi oleh masyarakat, maka pemahaman teks tidak dapat ditentukan baik oleh pengarang (author) maupun oleh pembaca (reader) secara sepihak.">Given the complexity of problems faced by society, the understanding of the text can not be determined either by the author (author) and readers (reader) unilaterally. </span><span title="Dengan demikian ada proses penyeimbangan di antara berbagai muatan kepentingan yang dibawa oleh masing-masing pihak.[37]">Thus there is a balancing process between the various interests of the charge carried by each party. [37]<br />
</span><span title="Proses negosiasi ini mengaharuskan agar setiap aktor harus dihormati dan peran masing-masing pihak harus dipertimbangkan secara sungguh-sungguh.">This negotiation process mengaharuskan that every actor should be respected and the role of each party should be considered seriously. </span><span title="Berkaitan dengan hal ini, Abou El-Fadl menetapkan lima syarat sebagai katup pengaman supaya terhindar dari tindakan sewenang-wenang dalam interpretasi teks, yaitu; pertama, self restraint.[38] Yang dimaksud dengan self restraint adalah keharusan untuk mengontrol dan mengendalikan diri dengan semangat">In this regard, Abou El-Fadl set five conditions as a safety valve in order to avoid arbitrary action in the interpretation of texts, namely: first, self-restraint. [38] The definition of self-restraint is a necessity to control and self-control in a spirit </span><span title="wafauqa kulli dzi ilmin 'alim[39] dan wa Allah a'lam.">wafauqa kulli Dzi ilmin 'alim [39] and wa God knows best. </span><span title="Kedua ungkapan ini berperan sebagai klaim epistemologi dan moral.">Both expressions are acting as epistemology and moral claims. </span><span title="Karena itu, setiap pihak yang terlibat dalam diskursus tidak boleh menguasai, menekan, dan mendominasi pihak lain yang sama-sama ingin menemukan makna teks.">Therefore, each party involved in the discourse should not be mastered, pressed, and dominate the other parties both want to find the meaning of the text. </span><span title="Dalam hukum Islam dikenal ungkapan “setiap mujtahid adalah benar”.">In Islamic law known as the phrase "every mujtahid is correct". </span><span title="Ungkapan ini bisa difahami dengan benar ketika pada wilayah publik misalnya dengan musyawarah atau duduk bersama menemukan pokok permasalahan masing-masing secara obyektif.">This expression can be understood properly when in public areas such as the consensus or sit together to find each subject objectively. </span><span title="Dengan demikian, proses pencarian makna akan tetap terbuka dan tidak ada finalitas yang cenderung sewenang-wenang.[40]">Thus, the search for meaning will remain open and there is no finality that tend to be arbitrary. [40]<br />
</span><span title="Kedua, diligence (sungguh-sungguh).[41] Sebagai salah satu sifat mujtahid adalah sungguh-sungguh telah mengerahkan segenap upaya rasional dalam menemukan dan memahami perintah-perintah yang relevan berkaitan dengan persoalan tertentu.">Second, diligence (seriously). [41] As one of nature is really mujtahid has been exerting all efforts in finding rational and understanding of relevant orders relating to specific issues. </span><span title="Tidak mudah mengukur standar kesungguhan tersebut, namun, setidaknya asumsi tersebut mengharuskan setiap mujtahid atau community of interpreters untuk merenungkan, memaksimalkan upayanya dalam menyelidiki, mengkaji, dan menganalisis data-data yang ada.">Not easy to measure the standard of seriousness, but, at least this assumption requires that every mujtahid or a community of interpreters to ponder, to maximize its efforts in investigating, reviewing, and analyzing existing data. </span><span title="Sedangkan standar kesungguhan yang harus dipenuhi adalah apa yang secara rasional diperlukan untuk memenuhi keempat syarat lainnya.">While the standard of seriousness that must be met is what is rationally required to meet the other four conditions. </span><span title="Al-Qur'an secara tegas mengecam mereka yang membuat klaim tentang Tuhan atau bertindak atas nama Tuhan tanpa didasari ilmu, hanya semata atas dasar nafsu, kesombongan, atau kepentingan pribadi.">The Qur'an unequivocally condemn those who make claims about God or act in the name of God without science is based, only on the basis of sheer lust, pride, or self-interest.<br />
</span><span title="Ketiga, comprehensivness (mempertimbangkan berbagai aspek yang terkait).[42] Dalam memahami makna, selain menggunakan bukti-bukti secara tekstual, faktor lain yang perlu diperhatikan oleh community of interpreters adalah juga memanfaatkan pengalaman kultural-sosiologis-antropologis, mempertim-bangkan kebiasaan dan">Third, comprehensivness (consider various aspects related). [42] In understanding the meaning, other than using textual evidence, other factors that need to be considered by the community of interpreters is also utilizing the experience of cultural-sociological-anthropological, considering the habits and </span><span title="perangai psikologis manusia, mencermati nilai-nilai fundamental secara filosofis, dan kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan alam, serta islamic studies.">human psychological temperament, looks at the fundamental values philosophically, and the progress of natural science, and Islamic studies.<br />
</span><span title="Tanpa mempertimbangkan latar belakang keahlian dan keilmuan community of interpreters di atas, maka hasil interpretasi yang dihasilkan akan terjebak pada authoritarianisme dalam berbagai bidang pada umumnya dan hukum Islam khususnya.">Without considering the background of expertise and scientific community of interpreters at the top, then the interpretation of the results generated will be stuck on authoritarianism in various fields of Islamic law in general and particular.<br />
</span><span title="Keempat, Reasonableness (mendahulukan tindakan yang masuk akal)[43], community of interpreters harus melakukan upaya penafsiran dan menganalisis perintah-perintah Tuhan secara rasional.">Fourth, Reasonableness (prioritize actions that make sense) [43], community of interpreters should make an effort of interpretation and analysis commands of God in a rational way. </span><span title="Meskipun rasionalitas ini dipandang sebagai sebuah konsep yang abstrak, namun setidaknya merupakan sesuatu yang dalam kondisi tertentu dipandang benar secara umum (common view).">Although rationality is seen as an abstract concept, but at least it is something that in certain circumstances is deemed correct in general (common view). </span><span title="Artinya, dalam menentukan makna harus mengenal komunitas interpretasi dan komunitas makna dengan mempertimbangkan apakah makna tertentu bisa dipahami oleh komunitas lain.">That is, in determining the meaning and interpretation of community should know the meaning of community by considering whether a particular meaning can be understood by other communities.<br />
</span><span title="Kelima, honesty (kejujuran).">Fifth, honesty (honesty). </span><span title="Sikap jujur dan dapat dipercaya adalah di mana community of interpreters tidak akan menyembunyikan, membatasi dengan sengaja sebagian perintah karena berbagai alasan.">Being honest and trustworthy is where the community of interpreters does not hide, deliberately limiting some orders due to various reasons. </span><span title="Kejujuran di sini mencakup tidak bersikap pura-pura memahami apa yang sebenarnya tidak diketahui dan bersikap terus terang tentang ilmu dan kemampuannya dalam memahami teks.">Honesty here include not being pretended to understand exactly what is not known and to be frank about science and its ability to understand the text.<br />
</span><span title="Untuk memperkuat bangunan epistemologisnya, Abou El-Fadl juga menetapkan empat asumsi dasar yang berfungsi sebagai landasan bagi penetapan hukumnya, yaitu; asumsi berbasis iman, asumsi berbasis nilai, asumsi berbasis metodologis, dan asumsi berbasis akal.">To strengthen the building epistemological, Abou El-Fadl also establishes four basic assumptions that serve as the basis for the determination of its jurisdiction, namely the assumption of faith-based, value-based assumptions, based on methodological assumptions, and based on reasonable assumptions.<br />
</span><span title="C.">C. </span><span title="Penutup">Cover<br />
</span><span title="Demikianlah, varian kritik di atas berkembang sedemikian rupa yang hingga kini masih dapat dilihat dalam karya-karya mereka.">Thus, variants of growing criticism in such a way that still can be seen in their works. </span><span title="Meski mengusung wacana kritik yang berbeda, seluruh pemikir kontemporer di atas sepakat bahwa khazanah keilmuan Islam selama ini masih sering diperlakukan dalam kerangka repetisi, bukan progresi.">Despite criticism carries a different discourse, above all contemporary thinkers agree that the treasures of Islamic scholarship for this is still often treated within the framework of repetition, rather than progression.</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-935497598522136652011-12-16T20:48:00.000-08:002011-12-16T20:48:33.990-08:00Al Kafi Al Kulaini<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://syiahtobat.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/alkafi_.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="297" src="http://syiahtobat.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/alkafi_.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="A.">A. </span><span title="Pendahuluan">Preliminary<br />
</span><span title="Dalam Syi'ah, kitab hadis pertama adalah kitab Ali Ibn Abi Thalib yang didalamnya memuat-hadis-hadis yang di-imla'-kan langsung dari Rasulullah SAW tentang halal, haram dan sebagainya.">In the Shia, the first book of Hadith is a book Ali Ibn Abi-Talib that inside contained the traditions that are a direct imla' from the Prophet about halal, haram, and so on. </span><span title="Kemudian dibukukan oleh Abu Rafi' al-Qubthi al-Syi'i dalam kitab al-Sunan, al-Ahkam dan al-Qadaya.">Then recorded by Abu Rafi 'al-al-Shi'ite Qubthi in the book of al-Sunan, al-Ahkam and al-Qadaya. </span><span title="Ulama sesudahnya akhirnya membukukannya ke berbagai macam kitab,[1] salah satunya adalah al-Kafi fi 'Ilmi al-Din yang dikalangan Syi'ah merupakan pegangan utama diantara kitab-kitab yang lain.[2]">Ulema after finally membukukannya to a variety of books, [1] one of them is al-Kafi fi 'Ilmi al-Din who among the Shiites are among the main handle of the other books. [2]<br />
</span><span title="Pembahasan tentang kitab al-Kafi karya al-Kulaini secara keseluruhan telah banyak dilakukan.">A discussion of the book al-Kafi al-Kulaini work as a whole has done a lot. </span><span title="Baik melalui komparasi dengan kitab pokok aliran Sunni, tentang kriteria kesahihan hadis,[3] maupun secara khusus kajian tentang al-Ushul al-Kafi.">Whether through a comparison with the main book of Sunnis, on the criteria of validity of the hadith, [3] and in particular the study of al-Usul al-Kafi. </span><span title="Namun sejauh telaah yang penulis lakukan kajian tentang al-Furu' al-Kafi, hampir belum ada.">But as far as the study authors do the study of al-Furu 'al-Kafi, almost not there. </span><span title="Karena itu kajian secara kritis atas kitab tersebut menjadi sangat urgen untuk dilakukan.">This study therefore critically upon the book has become very urgent to do. </span><span title="Selanjutnya, penulis akan berupaya memaparkan sekaligus menganalisa terhadap informasi yang ada.">Furthermore, the author will attempt to explain at once analyze existing information. </span><span title="Khususnya pada setting pribadi al-Kulaini dan umumnya pada al-Furu' al-Kafi (sistematika, metode dan isi).">Especially in private settings al-Kulaini and generally in al-Furu 'al-Kafi (systematics, methods and content).<br />
</span><span title="B.">B. </span><span title="Setting Biografi al-Kulaini">Setting biography of al-Kulaini<br />
</span><span title="Pengarang dari kitab al-Kafi adalah Siqat al-Islam Abu Ja'far Muhammad Ibnu Ya'qub Ibn Ishaq al-Kulaini al-Raziy.[4] Beliau dilahirkan sekitar tahun 254 H dan atau 260 H di kampung yang bernama al-Kulain atau">Author of the book al-Kafi is Siqat al-Islam Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-al-Raziy Kulaini. [4] He was born around the year 254 or 260 H and H in the village called al-Kulain or </span><span title="al-Kulin di Ray Iran.">Ray al-Kulin on Iran. </span><span title="Tidak banyak diketahui mengenai kapan tepatnya al-Kulaini lahir.">Not much is known about exactly when al-Kulaini born. </span><span title="Informasi lain hanya mengenai tempat tinggal al-Kulaini selain di Iran yaitu pernah mendiami Baghdad dan Kufah.">Other information about the only place to stay al-Kulaini than in Iran that is never inhabit Baghdad and Kufa. </span><span title="Ia pindah ke Baghdad karena menjadi ketua ulama atau pengikut Syi'ah Imam dua belas disana, selama pemerintahan al-Muqtadir.">He moved to Baghdad since become chairman of the followers of Shiite cleric or twelve Imams there, during the reign of al-Muqtadir. </span><span title="Beliau hidup di zaman sufara' al-arba'ah (empat wakil Imam al Mahdi).">He lived in an age sufara 'al-arba'ah (four representatives of Imam al-Mahdi). </span><span title="Selain itu tahun wafatnya adalah 328 H / 329 H (939/940).">Besides the death year is 328 H / H 329 (939/940). </span><span title="Beliau dikebumikan di pintu masuk Kufah.[5]">He was interred at the entrance of Kufa. [5]<br />
</span><span title="Ayah al-Kulaini bernama Ya'qub Ibn Ishaq atau al-Salsali, seorang tokoh Syi'ah terkemuka di Iran.">My father named al-Ya'qub ibn Ishaq Kulaini or al-Salsali, a prominent Shiite figures in Iran. </span><span title="Di kota inilah ia mulai mengenyam pendidikan.">In this city he began his education. </span><span title="Al-Kulaini punya pribadi yang unggul dan banyak dipuji ulama, bahkan ulama mazhab Sunni dan Syi'ah sepakat akan kebesaran dan kemuliaan al-Kulaini.[6] Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani mengatakan bahwa sosok al-Kulaini merupakan sosok fenomenal dimana dia adalah seorang">Al-Kulaini have excellent personal and praised many scholars, even the schools of Sunni and Shiite clerics agreed to greatness and glory of al-Kulaini. [6] Ibn Hajar al-Asqalani said that the figure of al-Kulaini is a phenomenal figure which he is a </span><span title="faqih sekaligus muhaddis yang cemerlang di zamannya.">faqih well muhaddis brilliant in his day. </span><span title="Seorang yang paling serius, aktif, dan ikhlas dalam menda'wahkan Islam dan menyebarkan berbagai dimensi kebudayaan dan dijuluki siqat al-Islam.[7]">One of the most serious, active, and sincere in menda'wahkan Islam and disseminate the various dimensions of culture and siqat nicknamed al-Islam. [7]<br />
</span><span title="Al-Kulaini menyusun kitab al-Kafi selama dua puluh tahun dengan melakukan perjalanan ilmiah untuk mendapatkan hadis-hadis dari berbagai daerah, seperti Irak, Damaskus, Ba'albak, dan Talfis.">Al-Kulaini compile the book al-Kafi for twenty years by doing a scientific journey to the traditions of various regions, such as Iraq, Damascus, Ba'albak, and Talfis. </span><span title="Namun bukan hanya hadis yang ia cari tetapi juga berbagai sumber dan kodifikasi hadis dari para ulama sebelumnya.">But not only the traditions that he was looking for but also a variety of sources and codified tradition of previous scholars. </span><span title="Dari sini nampak adanya usaha yang serius dan besar-besaran.[8]">From this it seems a serious effort and a large scale. [8]<br />
</span><span title="Imam al-Kulaini –merupakan seseorang yang ahli hadis mempunyai banyak guru dari kalangan ahl al-bait dalam proses transmisi hadis, diantara nama gurunya adalah Abdullah Ibnu Umayyah, Ishaq Ibnu Ya'qub dan lain-lain.">Imam al-Kulaini-hadith expert is someone who has a lot of teachers from among the ahl al-hadith stanza in the transmission process, between the teacher's name was Abdullah Ibn Umayyad, Ya'qub Ibn Ishaq and others. </span><span title="Ada beberapa kitab yang telah ditulis oleh al-Kulaini disamping al-Kufi diantaranya adalah: Kitab tafsir al-Ru'ya, kitab al-Rijal, kitab al-Rad ala al-Qaramitah, kitab Rasa'il dan lain-lain.">There are several books that have been written by the al-al-Kufi Kulaini beside them are: The Book of al-Ru'ya commentary, the book of al-Rijal, the book of al-Rad ala al-Qaramitah, books and other Rasa'il.<br />
</span><span title="Banyak ulama yang mengungkap kebesaran dari al-Kulaini ini diantaranya adalah, Ayatullah Ja'far Subhani melukiskan dengan matahari dan lainnya sebagai bintang-bintang yang menghiasi langit.">Many scholars which revealed the greatness of al-Kulaini of which this is, Ayatollah Jafar Subhani portray the other as the sun and the stars that adorn the sky. </span><span title="Kaum Syi'ah bersepakat bahwasanya kitab ini merupakan kitab utama dan diperbolehkan berhujjah dengan dalil-dalil yang ada didalamnya.[9]">Shi'ites agree that this book is a major book and allowed berhujjah with the arguments in it. [9]<br />
</span><span title="C.">C. </span><span title="Sistematika, Metode dan Isi Kitab al-Furu' al-Kafi al-Kulaini">Systematics, Methods and Content of the Book of al-Furu 'al-Kafi al-Kulaini<br />
</span><span title="Al-Kafi merupakan kitab hadis yang menyuguhkan berbagai persoalan pokok agama (ushul), cabang-cabang (furu') dan taman (rawdhah).">Al-Kafi is a hadith which serve a variety of subject matters of religion (usul), branches (furu ') and parks (rawdhah). </span><span title="Al-Kurki dalam ijazah-nya al-Qadhi Shafi al-Din 'Isa, mengatakan, al-Kulaini telah menghimpun hadis-hadis syar'iyyah dan berbagai rahasia rabbani yang tidak akan didapati di luar kitab al-Kafi.">Al-Kurki in her diploma Shafi al-Qadi al-Din 'Isa, say, al-Kulaini has brought together the traditions and secrets Rabbani syar'iyyah that will not be found outside of the book al-Kafi. </span><span title="Kitab ini menjadi pegangan utama dalam mazhab Syi'ah dalam mencari hujjah keagamaan.">This book has become a major holder in the Shiite sect in the search for religious proof. </span><span title="Bahkan di antara mereka ada yang mencukupkan atas kitab tersebut dengan tanpa melakukan ijtihad sebagaimana terjadi dikalangan ahbariyyun.[10]">Even among them there is a moderation of the book without doing ijtihad as occurred among ahbariyyun. [10]<br />
</span><span title="Kitab ini disusun dalam jangka waktu yang cukup panjang, selama 20 tahun yang tidak ada bandingannya.[11] Al-Kulaini meriwayatkan hadis yang sangat banyak jumlahnya dari berbagai ulama ahl al-bait.">The book is arranged in a fairly long period of time, during the 20 years that is unrivaled. [11] Al-Hadith narrated Kulaini vast amount of various scholars ahl al-bait. </span><span title="Hadis-hadis yang termuat dalam al-Kafi berjumlah 16.199 buah hadis, yang mencapai tingkat sahih, berjumlah 5.702 buah hadis, tingkat hasan 144 buah hadis, tingkat muwassaq 1.128 buah hadis, tingkat qawiy[12] 302 buah hadis, dan tingkat dha'if">The traditions embodied in al-Kafi Hadith totaled 16,199 pieces, which reached the level of valid, numbered 5702 pieces of hadith, the rate of 144 pieces hasan hadith, the hadith fruit muwassaq 1128, qawiy level [12] 302 pieces of hadith, and rate Da'eef </span><span title="9.485 buah hadis.[13]">9485 pieces of hadith. [13]<br />
</span><span title="Al-Kafi terdiri atas 8 jilid yang terbagi menjadi tiga puluh lima (35) kitab dan 2355 bab, 2 jilid pertama berisi tentang al-Ushul (pokok) jilid pertama memuat 1.437 hadis dan jilid kedua memuat 2.346 hadis, yang berkaitan dengan masalah akidah.">Al-Kafi consists of eight volumes which are divided into thirty-five (35) books and 2355 chapters, the first two volumes contain about al-Usul (basic) first volume contains 1437 hadiths and the second volume contains 2346 hadith, which deals with the problem of belief. </span><span title="5 jilid selanjutnya berbicara tentang al-Furu' (fikih) dan 1 jilid terakhir memuat 597 hadis yang disebut al-Rawdhah (taman) adalah kumpulan hadis yang menguraikan berbagai segi dan minat keagamaan serta termasuk beberapa surat dan khutbah para imam.[14] Juz">5 volume goes on to speak about al-Furu '(fiqh) and a final volume contains 597 so-called Hadith al-Rawdhah (park) is a collection of hadith that describes various aspects and interests of religious as well as including some of the letters and sermons of the priests. [14] Juz </span><span title="ini berisi tentang pernyataan tentang ahl al-bait, ajaran para imam, adab orang-orang saleh, mutiara hukum dan ilmu, yang tidak mungkin dibiarkan begitu saja.">This contains a statement about the ahl al-bait, the teachings of the priests, the pious manners, law and science of pearls, which may not go unpunished. </span><span title="Dinamakan al-rawdhah (taman) karena berisi hal-hal yang bernilai dan berharga, yang identik dengan taman yang menjadi tempat tumbuh bermacam-macam buah dan bungah.[15]">Called al-rawdhah (park) because it contains things that are valuable and precious, which is identical with the park as the place to grow different kinds of fruits and Bungah. [15]<br />
</span><span title="Adapun tema-tema dalam al-Furu' al-Kafi yang dimulai dalam jilid III terdiri dari 5 kitab yaitu;[16]">The themes of the al-Furu 'al-Kafi which began in volume III consists of five books, namely: [16]<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Taharah, yang terdiri dari 46 bab dan 340 hadis.">Kitab al-Taharah, which consists of 46 chapters and 340 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Haid, yang terdiri dari 24 bab dan 93 hadis.">Kitab al-Haid, which consists of 24 chapters and 93 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Jana'iz, berisi tentang pemakaman dan hal-hal lain yang terkait dengan upacara penguburan.">Kitab al-Jana'iz, contains about funerals and other matters related to the burial ceremony. </span><span title="Terdiri dari 95 bab dan 545 hadis.">Consisting of 95 chapters and 545 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Salah, terdiri dari 103 bab dan 924 buah hadis.">Kitab al-Salah, consisting of 103 chapters and 924 pieces of hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Zakah, terdiri dari 47 bab dan 277 hadis.">Kitab al-Zakah, consists of 47 chapters and 277 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Jilid IV terdiri dari 2 kitab yaitu;">Volume IV consists of two books namely;<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Siyam, memuat bab-bab shadaqah yang terdiri dari 43 bab dan 252 buah hadis.">Kitab al-Siyam, contains chapters shadaqah consisting of 43 chapters and 252 pieces of hadith. </span><span title="Sedangkan tentang puasa terdiri dari 83 bab dan 452 hadis.">As for fasting consists of 83 chapters and 452 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Hajj dan bab-bab ziarah, terdiri dari 236 bab dan 1486 buah hadis.">Kitab al-Hajj and pilgrimage chapters, consisting of 236 chapters and 1486 fruit hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Jilid V terdiri dari 3 kitab yaitu;">Volume V consists of three books namely;<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Jihad, terdiri dari 32 bab dan 149 buah hadis.">Kitab al-Jihad, consists of 32 chapters and 149 pieces of hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Ma'isyah (cara-cara memperoleh kehidupan), terdiri dari 159 bab dan 1061 hadis.">Kitab al-Ma'isyah (ways to get a life), consists of 159 chapters and 1061 hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Nikah, terdiri dari 192 bab dan 990 buah hadis.">Kitab al-Nikah, consisting of 192 chapters and 990 pieces of hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Jilid VI terdiri dari 9 kitab yaitu;">Volume VI is composed of nine books;<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-'aqiqah, terdiri dari 38 bab dan 223 hadis.">Kitab al-'aqiqah, consists of 38 chapters and 223 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Talaq, terdiri dari 82 bab dan 499 buah hadis.">Kitab al-talaq, consists of 82 chapters and 499 pieces of hadith.<br />
</span><span title="kitab al-'Itq wa al-Tadbir wa al-Kitabah (jenis-jenis budak dan cara memerdekakannya), terdiri dari 19 bab dan 114 hadis.">the book of al-'Itq tadbir wa wa al-al-Kitabah (other types of slaves and how memerdekakannya), consists of 19 chapters and 114 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Sayd (perburuan), terdiri dari 17 bab dan 119 hadis.">Kitab al-Zayd (hunting), consists of 17 chapters and 119 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Zaba'ih (penyembelihan), terdiri dari 15 bab dan 74 hadis.">Kitab al-Zaba'ih (slaughter), consists of 15 chapters and 74 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-At'imah (makanan), terdiri dari 134 bab dan 709 buah hadis.">Kitab al-At'imah (food), consists of 134 chapters and 709 pieces of hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Asyribah (minuman), terdiri dari 37 bab dan 268 hadis.">Kitab al-Asyribah (drinks), consists of 37 chapters and 268 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Zayy wa al-Tajammul wa al-Muru'ah (pakaian, perhiasan dan kesopanan), terdiri dari 69 bab dan 553 hadis.">Kitab al-al-Tajammul Zayy wa wa al-Muru'ah (clothing, jewelry and decency), consists of 69 chapters and 553 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Dawajin (hewan piaraan), terdiri dari 13 bab dan 106 hadis.">Kitab al-Dawajin (pets), consists of 13 chapters and 106 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Jilid VII terdiri dari 7 kitab, yaitu;">Volume VII consists of seven books, namely;<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Wasaya (wasiat), terdiri dari 39 bab dan 240 hadis.">Kitab al-Wasaya (wills), consists of 39 chapters and 240 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Mawaris berisi 69 bab dan 309 hadis.">Kitab al-Mawaris contains 69 chapters and 309 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Hudud berisi 63 bab dan 448 hadis.">Kitab al-Hudud contains 63 chapters and 448 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Diyat (hukum qisas dan rincian cara penebusan jika seseorang melukai secara fisik), terdiri dari 56 bab dan 366 hadis.">Kitab al-Diyat (qisas law and details of how redemption if someone is physically hurt), consists of 56 chapters and 366 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Syahadah (kesaksian dalam kasus hukum), terdiri dari 23 bab dan 123 hadis.">Kitab al-Shahadah (testimony in legal cases), consists of 23 chapters and 123 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Qada wa al-Ahkam (peraturan tentang tingkah laku para hakim dan syarat-syaratnya), terdiri dari 19 bab dan 78 hadis.">Kitab al-Qada wa al-Ahkam (rules about the behavior of judges and the terms), consists of 19 chapters and 78 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Kitab al-Aiman wa al-Nuzur wa al-Kafarat (tentang sumpah, janji dan cara penebusan kesalahan ketika pihak kedua batal), terdiri dari 18 bab dan 144 hadis.">Kitab al-Ayman al-Nuzur wa wa al-expiation (of the oath, the promise and redemptive ways off the error when the second party), consists of 18 chapters and 144 traditions.<br />
</span><span title="Jadi isi keseluruhan al-Furu' al-Kafi berjumlah 10.474 hadis, dengan perincian jilid III berisi 2049 hadis, jilid IV berisi 2424 hadis, jilid V berisi 2200 hadis, jilid VI berisi 2727 hadis, dan jilid VII berisi 1074 hadis.">So the overall content of al-Furu 'al-Kafi the hadith numbered 10,474, with the details of volume III contains 2049 hadiths, Volume IV contains 2424 hadiths, Volume V contains 2200 hadiths, Volume VI contains 2727 hadith and hadith 1074 Volume VII. </span><span title="Sistematika pembagian kitab dan bab yang dipakai al-Kulaini sangat sistematis sehingga memudahkan bagi kaum muslimin khususnya kaum Syi'ah untuk menggunakannya sebagai referensi yang utama dalam kehidupan mereka.">Systematic division of the book and the chapter of al-Kulaini used very systematically, making it easier for the Muslims, especially the Shiites to use it as a major reference in their lives.<br />
</span><span title="D.">D. </span><span title="Analisa Sejarah Penulisan Al-Kafi">Analysis of Writing History of Al-Kafi<br />
</span><span title="Dari pemaparan diatas, nampak adanya pengaruh lingkungan dan masyarakat yang senantiasa berkembang.">From the above explanation, it seems the influence of the environment and society are constantly evolving. </span><span title="Karena itu adalah wajar banyak tradisi-tradisi Syi'ah yang terdapat dalam kitab ini.">Because it is natural many Shi'i traditions contained in this book. </span><span title="Al-Kulaini hidup pada masa Dinasti Buhaiwiyah (945-1055H).">Al-Kulaini Buhaiwiyah lived during Dynasty (945-1055H). </span><span title="Masa ini merupakan masa paling kondusif bagi elaborasi dan standarisasi ajaran Syi'ah dibanding sebelumya.[17] Pada masa sebelumnya merupakan masa-masa sulit bagi kaum Syi'ah untuk mengembangkan eksistensinya dalam berbagai bidang.">This period is a time most conducive to the elaboration and standardization of Shi'ism than previously. [17] In the past a difficult time for the Shiites to develop its presence in various fields.<br />
</span><span title="Pada masa inilah al-Kulaini mencoba memenuhi harapan dari sebagian kaum Syi'ah yang memintanya untuk menulis sebuah kitab hadis yang mencakup seluruh permasalahan agama, kitab tersebut diharapkan dapat memuaskan para pelajar, dan dapat dijadikan rujukan para pencari petunjuk serta dapat dijadikan sebagai sumber ilmu agama">At this time that al-Kulaini trying to meet the expectations of most of the Shiites who asked him to write a book that covers the entire tradition of religious issues, the book is expected to satisfy the students, and seekers can be used as a reference guide and can be used as a source of religious knowledge </span><span title=".">. </span><span title="Dengan kitab ini diharapkan agar orang-orang dapat melaksanakan perintah-perintah Allah swt dan sunnah Nabi saw.">With the book is expected that people can carry out the commandments of Allah and the Sunnah of the Prophet PBUH. </span><span title="Kitab al-Kafi menjawab kebutuhan para ahli hadis, fiqih, teologi, juru dakwah, tukang debat (mujadil) dan para pelajar.[18] Oleh karena itu, maka kitab ini mencakup pokok-pokok agama ushul, furu', akhlak, nasehat,">Kitab al-Kafi answer the needs of the scholars of hadith, fiqh, theology, mission spokesman, debater (mujadil) and students. [18] Therefore, this book covers the subjects of religion usul, furu ', morals, advice, </span><span title="etika dan ajaran Islam yang lain.">ethics and other Islamic teachings.<br />
</span><span title="Al-Kafi adalah suatu kitab koleksi hadis yang berasal dari Nabi dan para Imam yang diteruskan kepada masyarakat muslim oleh murid-murid dari para Imam.">Al-Kafi is a collection of books of hadith from the Prophet and the Imams are forwarded to the Muslim community by the disciples of the Imams. </span><span title="Nama Al-Kafi mempunyai arti “cukup”, ini adalah sebuah kitab yang mencakup hadis-hadis yang diriwayatkan oleh para Imam Syi'i.">The name Al-Kafi has meaning "enough", this is a book that includes the traditions narrated by Shi'ite Imams. </span><span title="Al-Kulaini dalam muqaddimah kitabnya menjelaskan:">Al-Muqaddimah Kulaini in his book explains:<br />
</span><span title="“… Kamu ingin mempunyai suatu buku yang akan memenuhi kebutuhan religius-mu (kafin), yang meliputi bermacam-macam pengetahuan tentang agama, yang berguna untuk memberikan arahan bagi siswa maupun guru.">"... You want to have a book that will satisfy your religious needs (kafin), which includes a variety of knowledge about religion, which is useful to provide direction for students and teachers. </span><span title="Yang dapat digunakan bagi siapa saja yang ingin mendapatkan pengetahuan agama dan amaliyyah dan hukum-hukum menurut nampak hadis (asar) dari orang yang dapat dipercaya (Imam)…”[19]">Which can be used for anyone who wants to gain knowledge and amaliyyah religion and the laws according to the hadith appears (ASAR) from a trustworthy person (Imam) ... "[19]<br />
</span><span title="Dengan melihat sejarah penyusunan kitab ini yang mencapai 20 tahun dan didukung oleh kondisi sosial politik saat itu yang merupakan masa yang kondusif bagi Syi'ah.">By looking at the history of the preparation of this book that reached 20 years and is supported by the current socio-political conditions that are conducive to the Shi'a. </span><span title="Menurut penulis adalah sangat wajar jika penyusunan al-Kafi mencapai 16.199 hadis, di tambah lagi dengan fenomena bahwa para imam berhak meriwayatkan hadis setelah Nabi wafat.">According to the authors is very reasonable if the preparation of al-Kafi Hadith reached 16,199, plus more with the phenomenon that the Imams after the Prophet's hadith narrated entitled to death.<br />
</span><span title="E.">E. </span><span title="Analisa atas Metode Penulisan al-Furu’ al-Kafi">Analysis Method The writing of al-Furu 'al-Kafi<br />
</span><span title="Ada beberapa hal yang menjadi karakteristik dalam kitab ini, di antaranya: adalah sebagai berikut;">There are some things that were characteristic of this book, among them: are as follows;<br />
</span><span title="Adanya peringkasan sanad.">The existence of peringkasan sanad. </span><span title="Istilah sanad menurut para ahli hadis Syi'ah adalah para rawi yang menukil hadis secara berangkai dari awal sumber, baik dari Nabi Saw., para imam, para sahabat maupun dari yang lainnya yang diperlihatkan kepada Imam, sampai kepada rawi yang terakhir.[20]">The term sanad according to experts Shi'i hadith is the narrator of hadith in sequential quoting from the initial source, either from the Prophet., The priests, the friends and from others who are shown to the priest, to the narrator the latter. [20] </span><span title="Sanad-sanad yang ada dalam kitab ini kadang ditulis secara lengkap, tetapi terkadang al-Kulaini membuang sebagian sanad dengan menggunakan kata ashhabuna, fulan, 'iddah, jama'ah dan seterusnya.">Sanad-sanad of the book is sometimes written in full, but sometimes al-Kulaini removing most ashhabuna sanad by using the word, so and so, 'iddah jama'ah and so on. </span><span title="Hal ini dimaksudkan bagi periwayat-periwayat yang sudah terkenal.[21]">It is intended for the narrators-narrators are already well known. [21]<br />
</span><span title="Jika al-Kulaini menyebutkan sahabat kami dari Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Barqi, maka yang dimaksud adalah Ali Ibn Ibrahim, Ali Ibn Muhammad Abdullah Ahmad Ibn Abdullah dari ayahnya dan Ali Ibn al-Husain al-Sa'dabadi.">If al-Kulaini mention our friend of Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn al-Barqi, then the question is Ali Ibn Ibrahim, Abdullah Ahmad Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn Abdullah from his father and Ali ibn al-Husayn al-Sa'dabadi. </span><span title="Sedangkan sebutan dari Sahl Ibn Ziyad adalah Muhammad Ibn Hasan dan Muhammad Ibn 'Aqil, dan lain-lain.">While the designation of Sahl ibn Ziyad and Muhammad ibn Hasan Muhammad Ibn 'Aqil, and others. </span><span title="Mereka adalah para periwayat yang dianggap baik oleh al-Kulaini dan telah ditulis lengkap pada hadis sebelumnya.">They are the transmitters that are considered both by al-Kulaini and complete written on the previous hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Misalnya dalam kitab al-Furu' jilid keenam bab kesembilan mengenai memerdekakan budak, al-Kulaini menegaskan bahwa yang dimaksud dengan “iddatun min ashabina” ialah 'Ali Ibn Ibrahim, Muhammad Ibn Ja'far, Muhammad Ibn Yahya, 'Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn '">For example in the book of al-Furu 'sixth volumes of the ninth chapter of the freed slaves, al-Kulaini asserts that what is meant by "iddatun min ashabina' was' Ali Ibn Ibrahim, Muhammad Ibn Ja'far, Muhammad ibn Yahya, 'Ali Ibn Muhammad Ibn' </span><span title="Abdullah al-Qummi, Ahmad Ibn Abdillah, 'Ali Ibn Husain, yang semuanya dari Ahmad Ibn Muhammad Ibn Khalid dari Usman Ibn Isa.">Abdullah al-Qummi, Ahmad Ibn Abdillah, 'Ali ibn Husayn, who were all from Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Khalid from Uthman ibn Isa.<br />
</span><span title="Peringkasan sanad ini dilandasi atas keinginan al-Kulaini untuk tidak memperpanjang tulisan, dan dilakukan hanya pada para periwayat yang dianggap baik dan dipercaya oleh beliau.">Peringkasan sanad is based on al-Kulaini desire not to extend the writing, and is performed only on the narrators are considered good and trusted by him. </span><span title="Oleh karena itu, jika sanad telah ditulis lengkap pada hadis sebelumnya, maka selanjutnya al-Kulaini tidak menulisnya secara lengkap.">Therefore, if the complete chain of transmission has been written on the previous hadith, then the next al-Kulaini did not write it in full.<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Adanya para rawi yang bermacam-macam sampai Imam mereka dan periwayat lain.">The presence of the narrator in variety to their Imam and the other narrators. </span><span title="Jika dibandingkan dengan hadis-hadis lain diluar Syi'ah berbeda derajat penilaiannya.">When compared with other traditions outside the Shiite different degrees of assessment. </span><span title="Dengan demikian, mereka masih mengakui periwayat hadis dari kalangan lain dan menganggapnya masih dalam tataran kuat.">As such, they still recognize the transmitters of tradition from other circles and consider the level is still strong.<br />
</span><span title="Adanya anggapan teologis tentang tidak terhentinya wahyu setelah wafatnya Nabi Muhammad, oleh karena itu Imam-Imam Syi'ah dapat mengeluarkan hadis seperti yang terdapat pada al-Rawdhah jilid terakhir.[22] Menurut mereka, hujah keagamaan di kalangan Syi'ah tidak serta merta">Theological assumption of no interruption after the death of the Prophet Muhammad's revelation, therefore Shi'ite Imams may issue such hadith found in al-Rawdhah last volume. [22] According to them, among the Shiite religious argument does not necessarily </span><span title="berakhir dengan wafatnya Rasulullah, namun tetap berjalan sampai imam dua belas.">ended with the death of the Prophet, but keep running until the twelve imams. </span><span title="Dari sinilah baru wahyu berhenti.">From this new revelation stop. </span><span title="Pada perkembangannya, semua masalah keagamaan kemudian dituangkan dalam kitab standar, termasuk kitab al-Kafi.">In its development, all religious matters then poured in the standard works, including books of al-Kafi.<br />
</span><span title="F.">F. </span><span title="Kriteria Kesahihan Hadis al-Kulaini">Criterion validity of Hadith al-Kulaini<br />
</span><span title="Al-Kulaini dalam menentukan kriteria kesahihan hadis yang terdapat dalam al-Kafi, menggunakan kriteria kesahihan hadis yang lazim dipakai oleh para ulama mutaqaddimin, hal ini dikarenakan masa hidup al-Kulaini termasuk dalam generasi ulama mutaqaddimin.">Al-Kulaini in determining the validity of the criteria contained in the hadith of al-Kafi, using the criterion validity of the hadith which usually used by the scholars mutaqaddimin, this is because the lifetime of al-Kulaini mutaqaddimin included in the generation of scholars. </span><span title="Sedangkan yang masyhur, ada dua pembagian hadis, pada masa ulama mutaqaddimin, pada masa kedua tokoh periwayat, Sayyid Ahmad Ibn Thawus dan Ibn Dawud al-Hulliy.">While the famous, there are two traditions share, during the mutaqaddimin scholars, narrators during the second figure, Sayyid Ahmad Ibn Thawus Dawud and Ibn al-Hulliy. </span><span title="Pembagian hadis ini berkisar pada hadis mu'tabar dan ghairu mu'tabar.">The division of this tradition revolves around the tradition and ghairu mu'tabar mu'tabar. </span><span title="Pembagian ini dipandang dari segi kualitas eksternal (keakuratan periwayat), seperti kemuktabaran hadis yang dihubungkan dengan Zurarah, Muhammad Ibn Muslim serta Fudhail Ibn Yasar.">This division in terms of external quality (accuracy of the narrators), like the Hadith kemuktabaran associated with Zurarah, Muhammad ibn Muslim ibn Yasar and Fudhail. </span><span title="Maka hadis yang berkualitas demikian itu dapat dijadikan hujjah[23].">Then the tradition of quality so it can be used as proof [23].<br />
</span><span title="Sedangkan menurut jumhur Ja'fariyah hadis terbagi menjadi mutawatir dan ahad.">Meanwhile, according to tradition Ja'fariyah jumhur divided into mutawatir and Munday. </span><span title="Pengaruh akidah mereka tampak dalam maksud hadis mutawatir.">Reflects their influence appears in the hadith mutawatir intent. </span><span title="Karena hadis mutawatir menurut mereka adalah harus dengan syarat hati orang yang mendengar tidak dicemari syubhat atau taklid yang mewajibkan menafikan hadis dan maksudnya.[24] Pengaruh imamah di sini dapat diketahui ketika mereka menolak hujjah orang-orang yang berbeda dengan mereka yaitu mazhab yang menafikan ketetapan">Because according to them is the hadith mutawatir be provided minded people who hear not polluted doubtful or deny the hadith requiring imitation and intention. [24] The influence of Imamat here can be known when they refused to go against those who differ with those who deny the provision of school </span><span title="amir al-mukminin Ali sebagai imam.">amir Ali al-believers as priests. </span><span title="Mereka juga berpendapat tentang mutawatir-nya hadis al-saqalain dan hadis al-ghadir.">They also argued about his mutawatir saqalain and Hadith al-Hadith al-Ghadir. </span><span title="[25]">[25]<br />
</span><span title="Sedangkan hadis Ahad menurut mereka terbagi dalam empat tingkatan atau empat kategori, yang bertumpu pada telaah atas sanad (eksternal) dan matan (internal), dan keempat tingkatan tersebut merupakan pokok bagian yang menjadi rujukan setiap bagian yang lain.">Meanwhile, on Sunday according to their traditions are divided into four levels or four categories, which is based on a review of the sanad (external) and honor (internal), and the fourth level is the principal part as the reference every other part. </span><span title="Empat tingkatan itu adalah; sahih, hasan, muwassaq, dan dha'if.">The four levels are: sahih, hasan, muwassaq, and Da'eef. </span><span title="Pembagian inilah yang kemudian berlaku sampai saat ini.[26] Namun ada sebagian ulama Syi'ah yang mengakui adanya kualitas qawiy dalam pembagian hadis tersebut, jadi tingkatan kualitas hadis menjadi lima (5), yaitu:">The division is then applicable to the present. [26] However, there are some who approve of the Shiite cleric qawiy quality in the distribution of these traditions, so the quality level of hadith into five (5), namely:<br />
</span><span title="Hadis Sahih">Hadith Sahih<br />
</span><span title="Hadis sahih menurut mereka adalah, hadis yang bersambung sanadnya kepada imam yang ma'shum serta adil dalam semua tingkatan dan jumlahnya berbilang.">They are valid according to the Hadith, traditions that continued sanadnya the priest who Ma'shum and fair in all levels and the amount berbilang. </span><span title="Dengan kata lain, hadis sahih menurut mereka adalah hadis yang memiliki standar periwayatan yang baik dari imam-imam di kalangan mereka yang ma'shum.[27]">In other words, hadith sahih hadith according to them is a transmission that has a good standard of priests among those who Ma'shum. [27]<br />
</span><span title="Pengaruh Imamiyah di sini tampak pada pembatasan imam yang ma'shum dengan persyaratan periwayat harus dari kalangan Syi'ah Imamiyah.">Imami influence here seems to restrictions of the priest who Ma'shum with the requirements of the narrators must be Twelver Shiites. </span><span title="Jadi hadis tidak sampai pada tingkatan sahih jika para periwayatnya bukan dari Ja'fariyah Isna 'Asyariyah dalam semua tingkatan.[28]">So to the extent of the hadith is not valid if the narrators rather than Ja'fariyah Isna 'Asyariyah in all levels. [28]<br />
</span><span title="Kalangan Syi'ah Imamiyah menjelaskan sebab adanya persyaratan ini adalah tidak diterima riwayat orang fasiq, meskipun dari sisi agamanya dia dikatakan sebagai orang yang selalu menghindari kebohongan.">Among Shia Imami explains why the existence of this requirement is not acceptable Fasiq person's history, although from the side of his religion he is said to be a person who always avoid the lie. </span><span title="Dengan tetap wajib meneliti riwayat dari orang fasik dan orang yang berbeda dari kaum Muslimin (maksudnya; selain Imamiyah).">With still must examine history of the wicked and those who differ from the Muslims (meaning: in addition to Twelver). </span><span title="Jika dia dikafirkan maka dia tertolak riwayatnya meskipun diketahui dia orang adil dan mengharamkan kebohongan.">If he dikafirkan then he fabricated his history although he was fairly unknown and forbidden lies.<br />
</span><span title="Menurut al-Mamqani, keadilan pasti sejalan dengan akidah dan iman, dan menjadi syarat bagi setiap periwayat.">According to al-Mamqani, justice must be in line with the creed and faith, and a requirement for every narrators. </span><span title="Sejalan dengan firman Allah, “jika datang kepadamu orang fasik membawa suatu berita, maka periksalah dengan teliti.(QS al-Hujurat; 6).">In line with the word of God, "if you come to the wicked brings a message, so check carefully. (Surat al-Hujurat; 6).<br />
</span><span title="Dari keterangan tersebut dapat disimpulkan, bahwa iman adalah syarat bagi periwayat dan riwayat orang fasik wajib diteliti, sedangkan selain pengikut Ja'fariyah adalah kafir atau fasik, maka riwayatnya tidak mungkin sahih sama sekali.">From the description it could be concluded, that faith is a requirement for the narrators and the history of the wicked shall be observed, whereas apart Ja'fariyah followers are infidels or wicked, then history can not be valid at all. </span><span title="Dari sini tidak hanya tampak pengaruh imamah, tapi juga tampak sikap ekstrim dan zindiq.">From here is not only visible effect of the Imamate, but also the attitude seems extreme and zindiq.<br />
</span><span title="Hadis Hasan">Hadith Hasan<br />
</span><span title="Hadis hasan menurut Syi'ah adalah hadis yang bersambung sanadnya kepada imam yang ma'shum dari periwayat adil, sifat keadilannya sesuai dalam semua atau sebagian tingkatan para rawi dalam sanadnya.[29]">Shiite hadith is hasan hadith according sanadnya concatenated to the priest who Ma'shum of narrators fair, according to the nature of justice in all or part of the narrator in sanadnya levels. [29]<br />
</span><span title="Dari definisi tersebut tampak bahwa mereka mensyaratkan hadis hasan sebagai berikut;">From these definitions it appears that they require hasan hadith as follows;<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Bertemu sanadnya kepada imam yang ma'shum tanpa terputus.">Sanadnya met the priest who Ma'shum without interruption.<br />
</span><span title="Semua periwayatnya dari kelompok Imamiyah.">All the narrators of the Imami.<br />
</span><span title="Semua periwayatnya terpuji dengan pujian yang diterima dan diakui tanpa mengarah pada kecaman.">All the narrators commendable with compliments received and acknowledged without leading to criticism. </span><span title="Dapat dipastikan bahwa bila periwayatnya dikecam, maka dia tidak diterima dan tidak diakui riwayatnya.">It is certain that if the narrators condemned, then he is not accepted and acknowledged no history.<br />
</span><span title="Tidak ada keterangan tentang adilnya semua periwayat.">There is no description about the fairness of all the narrators. </span><span title="Sebab jika semua periwayat adil maka hadisnya menjadi sahih sebagaimana syarat yang ditetapkan di atas.">For if all the narrators of the hadith to be sahih fair condition as specified above.<br />
</span><span title="Semua itu harus sesuai dalam semua atau sebagian rawi dalam sanadnya.">All it has to fit in all or part of the narrator in sanadnya.<br />
</span><span title="Hadis Muwassaq[30]">Hadith Muwassaq [30]<br />
</span><span title="Hadis muwassaq yaitu hadis yang bersambung sanadnya kepada imam yang ma'shum dengan orang yang dinyatakan siqah oleh para pengikut Syi'ah imamiyah, namun dia rusak akidahnya, seperti dia termasuk salah satu firqah yang berbeda dengan imamiyah meskipun dia masih seorang Syi'ah dalam semua">Hadith are traditions that knit muwassaq sanadnya the priest who Ma'shum with people who otherwise siqah by the followers of Shia Imami, but he damaged akidahnya, like she was one of a different firqah Imami though he was a Shiite in all </span><span title="atau sebagian periwayat, sedangkan lainnya termasuk periwayat yang sahih.">or part of the narrators, while others including the narrators are valid.<br />
</span><span title="Definisi ini memberikan pengertian tentang persyaratan sebagai berikut:">This definition gives the notion of the following requirements:<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Bersambungnya sanad kepada imam yang ma’shum.">Bersambungnya Ma'shum sanad to the priests.<br />
</span><span title="Para periwayatnya bukan dari kelompok Imamiyah, tapi mereka dinyatakan siqah oleh ja'fariyah secara khusus.">The narrators instead of Twelver groups, but they are otherwise specifically siqah by ja'fariyah.<br />
</span><span title="Sebagian periwayatnya sahih, dan tidak harus dari imamiyah.">Some narrators valid, and not necessarily from Imami.<br />
</span><span title="Pengaruh akidah mereka tampak dalam hal-hal sebagai berikut:">Reflects their influence appears in the following matters:<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Posisi hadis muwassaq diletakkan setelah hadis sahih dan hadis hasan karena adanya periwayat dari selain Ja'fariyah.">The position of hadith after hadith sahih muwassaq placed and hadith hasan because of the narrators of Ja'fariyah apart.<br />
</span><span title="Pernyataan siqah harus dari kelompok Ja'fariyah sendiri.">The statement must be from the group Ja'fariyah siqah own. </span><span title="Karena bagi mereka pernyataan siqah dari selain Ja'fariyah tidak cukup, bahkan orang yang dinyatakan siqah oleh mereka (selain Ja'fariyah) adalah dha'if menurut mereka.">Because for them other than statements of Ja'fariyah siqah not enough, even people who otherwise siqah by them (other than Ja'fariyah) is Da'eef according to them.<br />
</span><span title="Al-Mamqani menjelaskan bahwa pengukuhan siqah harus dari para pengikutnya dengan mengatakan, menerima penilaian siqah selain imamiyah, jika dia dipilih imam untuk menerima atau menyampaikan persaksian dalam wasiat, wakaf talak, atau imam mendoakan rahmat dan ridha kepadanya, atau diberi kekuasaan untuk mengurusi wakaf atas">Al-Mamqani explained that the inauguration should siqah of his followers by saying, in addition to receiving the assessment siqah Imami, if he's elected imams to receive or deliver testimony in wills, endowments divorce, or the priest prayed for mercy and good pleasure of him, or is empowered to take care of waqf </span><span title="suatu negeri, atau dijadikan wakil, pembantu tetap atau penulis, atau diizinkan berfatwa dan memutuskan hukum, atau termasuk syaikh ijazah[31], atau mendapat kemuliaan dengan melihat imam kedua belas.">a country, or be a deputy, assistant fixed or author, or licensed berfatwa and decide the law, including the sheikh or diploma [31], or have seen the glory of the twelfth imam.<br />
</span><span title="Hadis Dha’if">Hadith Da'eef<br />
</span><span title="Menurut pandangan Syi'ah, hadis dha'if adalah hadis yang tidak memenuhi salah satu dari tiga kriteria di atas.">In the view of Shi'ites, Da'eef hadith is hadith that does not meet one of the three criteria above. </span><span title="Misalnya di dalam sanadnya terdapat orang yang cacat sebab fasik, atau orang yang tidak diketahui kondisinya, atau orang yang lebih rendah dari itu, seperti orang yang memalsukan hadis.[32]">Such as in sanadnya because there are wicked people with disabilities, or people who do not know his condition, or lower than that, like the people who forged hadith. [32]<br />
</span><span title="Dalam hadis sahih terlihat bahwa mereka menilai selain Ja'fariyah sebagai orang kafir atau fasik, sehingga riwayatnya dinyatakan dha'if yang tidak boleh diterima, dan juga tidak diterima dari selain Ja'fariyah kecuali orang yang dinyatakan siqah oleh mereka.">In a sahih hadith shows that they value other than Ja'fariyah as unbelievers or ungodly, so revealed Da'eef history that should not be accepted, nor received from other than those stated Ja'fariyah except siqah by them.<br />
</span><span title="Atas dasar itu mereka menolak hadis-hadis sahih dari tiga khulafa al-Rasyidin (Abu Bakar, Umar, dan Usman) dan sahabat yang lain, tabiin, serta para imam ahli hadis dan fuqaha, pasalnya mereka tidak percaya dengan akidah imamiyah isna 'asyariyah.">On that basis they rejected the traditions of three Righteous sahih al-Rashidun (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman) and another friend, successors, and priests were scholars of hadith and jurists, the article they do not believe in the creed of Twelver isnâ 'asyariyah. </span><span title="Sebab riwayat-riwayat sahih yang di dalam sanadnya terdapat para sahabat senior dan para imam yang amanah, tetapi tidak percaya dengan akidah dua belas imam, maka riwayat-riwayat tersebut dinyatakan dha'if oleh kaum Ja'fariyah.">For authentic narrations which in sanadnya there are the friends and the senior priests trustful, but do not believe in the creed of twelve priests, the narrations are expressed by the Ja'fariyah Da'eef.<br />
</span><span title="Hukum Mengamalkan Hadis Dha’if">Practice of law Hadith Da'eef<br />
</span><span title="Adapun hadis-hadis yang dha'if bukan berarti tidak dapat diamalkan.">As for the traditions Da'eef not mean it can not practiced. </span><span title="Keberadaan hadis tersebut dapat disejajarkan dengan hadis sahih manakala hadis tersebut populer dan sesuai dengan ajaran mereka.">The existence of these traditions can be compared with the hadith sahih hadith when the popular and in accordance with their teachings. </span><span title="Dengan demikian nampak bahwa terdapat pengaruh yang kuat atas tradisi-tradisi yang berkembang di kalangan pengarang kitab.">Thus it appears that there is a strong influence on the traditions that developed among the author of the book. </span><span title="Oleh karena itu, tidak heran banyak tradisi Syi'ah yang muncul dalam kitab hadis tersebut.">Therefore, no wonder many Shiite tradition that appears in the book of hadith. </span><span title="Sebagai contoh adalah masalah Haji, di dalamnya tidak hanya dibahas masalah manasik haji ke Baitullah saja, melainkan memasukkan hal-hal lain seperti ziarah ke makam Nabi Muhammad dan para imam mereka.">An example is the issue of Hajj, in which not only addressed the issue rituals of Hajj to the House only, but include other things like a pilgrimage to the tomb of the Prophet Mohammed and their priests.<br />
</span><span title="Hadis Qawiy[33]">Hadith Qawiy [33]<br />
</span><span title="Menurut muhaqqiq dan muhaddis al-Nuri, yang dimaksud dengan tingkat kuat adalah karena sebagian atau semua tokoh sanadnya adalah orang-orang yang dipuji oleh kalangan Muslim non-Imami, dan tidak ada seorang pun yang melemahkan hadisnya.">According Muhaqqiq and muhaddis al-Nuri, who is a strong level is due to some or all of the characters sanadnya are people who are praised by non-Imami Muslims, and no one had weakened his Hadith. </span><span title="Hadis muwassaq (yang melahirkan kepercaraan), kadang disebut juga dengan qawiy (kuat) karena kuatnya zhan (dugaan akan kebenarannya), di samping karena kepercayaan kepadanya.[34]">Muwassaq Hadith (which gave birth to kepercaraan), sometimes also called qawiy (strong) due to strong zhan (allegations of its truth), as well as confidence in him. [34]<br />
</span><span title="Tingkatan hadis qawiy ini tidak banyak dikenal baik oleh kalangan Syi'ah selain Imamiyah maupun kalangan Sunni.">Depth qawiy hadith is not widely known by name among the Imami Shiites and Sunnis apart. </span><span title="Hal ini dikarenakan jumhur ulama telah sepakat akan pembagian tingkatan hadis Syi'ah menjadi empat macam.">It is because scholars have agreed jumhur division level will be four kinds of Shiite traditions. </span><span title="Di samping itu sebagian rawi dari tingkatan qawiy ini berasal dari non-Imami, sedangkan mereka membatasi untuk menerima hadis dari selain Imamiyah.">In addition, a portion of the level qawiy narrator is derived from non-Imami, while they limit other than to accept the hadith of the Twelver. </span><span title="Karena syarat utama diterimanya hadis adalah harus dari kalangan Imamiyah.">Since the main requirement is to be received Hadith from among the Imami.<br />
</span><span title="G.">G. </span><span title="Kualitas Hadis dalam al-Furu’ al-Kafi">Quality of Hadith in al-Furu 'al-Kafi<br />
</span><span title="Sebagaimana diketahui bahwa kitab al-Furu' al-Kafi mencakup riwayat-riwayat yang berkaitan dengan hukum fikih.">As we know that the book of al-Furu 'al-Kafi includes narrations relating to legal jurisprudence. </span><span title="Maka kitab ini sama dengan kitab Faqih Man La Yahdhuruh al-Faqih karya al-Shadiq dan dua kitab karya al-Thusi yaitu al-Tahzib dan al-Istibsar.">So the book is the same as the book Man La Yahdhuruh Faqih al-Faqih al-Sadiq and two books of al-al-Tahzib Thusi and al-Istibsar. </span><span title="Pengaruh imamah dalam al-Furu' ini juga sangat kental, misalnya pada bab haji, al-Kulaini meriwayatkan dari Wahab, ia berkata, ada sebuah hadis yang menyatakan bahwa orang yang tidak bermazhab Ja'fariyah kemudian setelah haji dia mengikuti mazhab Ja'fariyah maka">The influence of Imamat in al-Furu 'is also very thick, for example in chapter Hajj, al-Kulaini narrated from Wahb, he said, there is a hadith which states that people who do not bermazhab Ja'fariyah then after the Hajj then he followed the school of Ja'fariyah </span><span title="orang tersebut disunahkan mengulang hajinya.">person disunahkan repeat his Hajj. </span><span title="Bagi orang Ja'fariyah, tidak boleh menggantikan haji selain dari Ja'fariyah kecuali terhadap bapaknya.">For people Ja'fariyah, should not be substituted Hajj apart from Ja'fariyah except against his father. </span><span title="Sedang dalam berziarah maka disunahkan dengan sunnah muakkad untuk berziarah ke makam para imam.">Being in a pilgrimage to the sunnah then disunahkan muakkad to visit the tomb of the priests.<br />
</span><span title="Contoh-contoh lain dalam al-Furu' terdapat pada bab wudhu dan mawaris[35]">Other examples of al-Furu 'contained in Chapter ablution and Mawaris [35]<br />
<br />
</span><span title="· ان العبد اذا توضأ فغسل وجهه تناثرت ذنوب وجهه واذا غسل يديه الى المرفقين تناثرت عنه ذنوب يديه واذا مسح رجليه او غسلهما للتقية تناثرت عنه ذنوب رجليه وان قال في اول وضوئه بسم الله الحمن الرحيم طهرت اعضاؤه كلها من الذنوب وان قال في اخر وضوئه او غسله">· ان العبد اذا توضأ فغسل وجهه تناثرت ذنوب وجهه واذا غسل يديه الى المرفقين تناثرت عنه ذنوب يديه واذا مسح رجليه او غسلهما للتقية تناثرت عنه ذنوب رجليه وان قال في اول وضوئه بسم الله الحمن الرحيم طهرت اعضاؤه كلها من الذنوب وان قال في اخر وضوئه او غسله </span><span title="من الجناية سبحانك اللهم وبحمدك اشهد ا لا اله الاانت استغفرك واتوب اليك واشهد ان محمدا عبدك ورسولك واشهد ان عليا وليك وخليفتك بعد نبيك وان اوليائه خلفائه واوصيائه…..">من الجناية سبحانك اللهم وبحمدك اشهد ا لا اله الاانت استغفرك واتوب اليك واشهد ان محمدا عبدك ورسولك واشهد ان عليا وليك وخليفتك بعد نبيك وان اوليائه خلفائه واوصيائه ... ..<br />
</span><span title="· عدة من اصحابنا, عن أحمد بن محمد عن ابن محبوب قال: أخبرني ابن بكير عن زرارة قال: سمعت أبا عبد الله عليه السلام يقول: ولكل جعلنا موالي ممّا ترك الوالدين والاقربون, قال : إنّما عنّي بذلك أولى الأرحام في الموارث ولم يعن أولياء النعمة">· عدة من اصحابنا, عن أحمد بن محمد عن ابن محبوب قال: أخبرني ابن بكير عن زرارة قال: سمعت أبا عبد الله عليه السلام يقول: ولكل جعلنا موالي مما ترك الوالدين والاقربون, قال: إنما عني بذلك أولى الأرحام في الموارث ولم يعن أولياء النعمة </span><span title=", فأولاهم بالميّت أقربهم إليه من الرحم التي تجرّه إليها">, فأولاهم بالميت أقربهم إليه من الرحم التي تجره إليها<br />
</span><span title="· علي بن ابراهيم عن ابيه ومحمد بن اسماعيل عن الفضل بن شاذان جميعا عن ابن ابي عمير عن عمر بن اذنيه عن محمد بن مسلم والفضيل بن يسار وبريد العجلي وزرارة ابن اعين عن ابي جعفر عليه السلام قال: السلام لا تعول ولاتكون اكثر من ستة.">· علي بن ابراهيم عن ابيه ومحمد بن اسماعيل عن الفضل بن شاذان جميعا عن ابن ابي عمير عن عمر بن اذنيه عن محمد بن مسلم والفضيل بن يسار وبريد العجلي وزرارة ابن اعين عن ابي جعفر عليه السلام قال: السلام لا تعول ولاتكون اكثر من ستة.<br />
</span><span title="· وعنه عن محمد بن عيسى بن عبيد عن يونس بن عبد الرحمن عن عمر بن اذنيه مثل ذلك">· وعنه عن محمد بن عيسى بن عبيد عن يونس بن عبد الرحمن عن عمر بن اذنيه مثل ذلك<br />
</span><span title="Dalam riwayat tentang wudhu di atas, tampak sekali adanya pemalsuan, yaitu dalam redaksi “atau membasuh kedua kaki karena taqiyah“, dan dalam redaksi “bahwa orang-orang yang dicintainya (Ali) adalah para khalifahnya dan orang-orang yang diwasiatkannya”.">In the history of ablution at the top, it looked very much a forgery, that is in the editorial "or wash both feet because taqiyah", and in the editorial "that the people he loves (Ali) was the caliph and the people who diwasiatkannya". </span><span title="Maka hubungan pendapat mereka dalam masalah fiqih dengan mazhab adalah yang menjadikan mereka memalsukan hadis untuk menolong dua orang (al-Thusi dan al-'Amili).">So their opinions in connection with the schools of fiqh issues is what makes them fake hadith to help two people (al-Thusi and al-'Amili).<br />
</span><span title="Al-Thusi dan al-'Amili adalah dua orang yang mengatakan bahwa membasuh dua kaki diterapkan pada taqiyyah.">Al-Thusi and al-'Amili are two people who say that washing taqiyyah applied to two feet. </span><span title="Jadi fanatik Syi'ah kepada pendapat sesuai mazhabnya dan kerancauan dalam pemikiran dan ta'wil telah memunculkan dampak yang sangat buruk, yaitu pemalsuan hadis.">So fanatical Shiite according to the opinion of his school and in the thinking and ta'wil kerancauan has led to more adverse effects, namely forgery of hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Sedangkan pada riwayat tentang mawaris tampak adanya peringkasan sanad.">While looking at the history of the peringkasan Mawaris sanad. </span><span title="Adapun mengenai kualitas hadis tentang mawaris ini, secara eksplisit, tidak diketahui karena informasi yang di dapat dalam al-Furu' sangat terbatas, tanpa keterangan kualitas hadisnya.">As to the quality of the hadith about this Mawaris, explicitly, is unknown because the information can be in al-Furu 'is very limited, with no explanation quality Hadith. </span><span title="Dan telah diketahui bahwa dalam kitab al-Kafi ini tidaklah semuanya sahih.">And it has been known that in the book al-Kafi are not all valid.<br />
</span><span title="Namun setelah penulis menemukan adanya pembahasan tentang al-Jarh wa al-Ta'dil dan Ushul al-Hadis fi 'Ilmi al-Dirayah dalam tradisi Syi'ah, adanya peringkasan sanad tidaklah mempengaruhi kualitas hadis.">However, after the authors found no discussion of al-Jarh ta'dil wa al-Usul al-Hadith and the fi 'al-Dirayah Ilmi in Shia tradition, the sanad peringkasan not affect the quality of the hadith. </span><span title="Jadi hadis-hadis tentang mawaris tersebut masih bisa dipakai dan dapat dijadikan hujah.">So the traditions of Mawaris can still be used and can be used as argument.<br />
</span><span title="Fenomena ini bisa dijadikan bukti, bahwa hadis-hadis dalam al-Kafi al-Kulaini, khususnya al-Furu' memang memuat beragam kualitas, dari sahih, hasan, muwassaq, qawiy, bahkan dha'if.">This phenomenon can be used as evidence, that the traditions in al-Kafi al-Kulaini, especially al-Furu 'does contain a variety of quality, from valid, hasan, muwassaq, qawiy, even Da'eef.<br />
</span><span title="H.">H. </span><span title="Kesimpulan">Conclusion<br />
</span><span title="Setelah melakukan penelusuran terhadap kitab-kitab Syi'ah, penulis menemukan kitab ilmu hadis baik sanad maupun matan dari kalangan Syi'ah yang disusun oleh Ja'far Subhani, keduanya adalah Ushul al-Hadis wa Ahkamuhu fi 'ilmi al-Dirayah, dan Kulliyat">After doing a search on the books of Shia, the authors found the book both sanad of hadith and honor of the Shiite compiled by Jafar Subhani, both Usul al-Hadith wa Ahkamuhu fi 'al-Dirayah ilmi, and Kulliyat </span><span title="fi 'ilmi al-Rijal.">fi 'al-Rijal ilmi. </span><span title="Dari sini dapat disimpulkan bahwa kajian sanad dan matan telah dikaji secara mendalam.">From this it can be concluded that the study of sanad and honor have been studied in depth. </span><span title="Jika dibandingkan dengan tradisi Sunni, kajian ulum al-hadis Syi'ah juga bisa dianggap telah matang.">When compared with the Sunni tradition, the study ulum al-Shi'i hadith can also be considered to have matured. </span><span title="Meskipun pengaruh Imamiyah masih sangat kental.">Although still very strong influence Imami. </span><span title="Hal ini terbukti dengan syarat diterimanya hadis adalah harus dari kalangan Imamiyah.">This is proven by the hadith is the condition of receipt must be from among the Imami. </span><span title="Itulah yang menjadi syarat utama dalam ilmu al-jarh wa al-Ta'dil.">That is the main requirement in the science of al-jarh wa al-ta'dil.<br />
</span><span title="Demikian juga terhadap kajian matan, adanya anggapan teologis tentang tidak terhentinya wahyu sepeninggal Rasulullah, maka imam-imam pada mazhab Syi'ah dapat mengeluarkan hadis.">Similarly to the study towns, the theological notion of revelation is not stalled after the death of the Prophet, and the priests at the school can issue a Shia tradition. </span><span title="Jadi, tidak heran jika surat-surat, khutbah para imam dan hal-hal lain yang disangkutpautkan dengan ajaran agama diposisikan setara dengan hadis.">So, do not be surprised if the letters, sermons of priests and other things that grab the religious teachings positioned equivalent to the hadith. </span><span title="Ini menjadikan kajian hadis Syi'ah berbeda dengan kalangan Sunni.">This makes the study of Shiite hadith differ from Sunni circles. </span><span title="Menurut hemat penulis, dua syarat itulah yang menjadikan penyebab jumlah hadis Syi'ah jauh lebih banyak dibandingkan dengan jumlah hadis Sunni.">According to the opinion of the writer, the two terms is what makes the cause of the Shiite tradition far more than the number of Sunni.</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-63355103927941116122011-12-16T20:23:00.000-08:002011-12-16T20:23:50.099-08:00Qur'an Studies in Germany<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.siaranalhayat.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/Naskah-Dibukukan.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="258" src="http://www.siaranalhayat.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/12/Naskah-Dibukukan.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Oleh Dr Sahiron Syamsuddin">By Dr. Shamsuddin Sahiron</span><span title="(Dosen di UIN Sunan Kalijaga)">(Lecturer at UIN Sunan Kalijaga)<br />
</span><span title="Kajian kritis historis terhadap Alquran adalah kajian yang berupaya menunjukkan bagaimana teks Alquran dan sejarahnya dapat diketahui dengan bantuan pengetahuan rasional.">Historical critical study of the Koran is a study that attempted to show how the Quranic text and its history can be known with the help of rational knowledge. </span><span title="Tujuan utama dari kajian ini adalah untuk menjelaskan asal-usul teks dan menggambarkan bentuk dan fungsinya yang paling awal (Kroop 2007:1).">The main objective of this study is to explain the origin of the text and illustrate the forms and functions of the earliest (Kroop 2007:1). </span><span title="Model penelitian semacam ini telah dilakukan oleh sarjana-sarjana Barat sejak abad ke-19.">Models of this kind of research has been done by Western scholars since the 19th century. </span><span title="Abraham Geiger (1810-1874) dianggap sebagai sarjana pertama yang menerapkan pendekatan kritik-historis ini terhadap Alquran.">Abraham Geiger (1810-1874) is considered as the first scholar to apply the historical-critical approach to the Qur'an. </span><span title="Pada tahun 1883, ia menerbitkan sebuah buku yang berjudul Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judentum aufgenommen?">In 1883, he published a book entitled Was hat Mohammed aus dem Judentum aufgenommen? </span><span title="(Dirk Hatwig 2009:241).">(Dirk Hatwig 2009:241).<br />
</span><span title="Dalam karya ini, ia mengatakan bahwa Nabi Muhammad mengambil banyak bagian dari tradisi Yahudi dalam memproduksi Alquran.">In this work, he said that Prophet Muhammad took much part of Jewish tradition in producing the Koran. </span><span title="Pandangan semacam ini kemudian diikuti oleh banyak sarjana lainnya, seperti Günther Luling dan Christoph Luxemberg.">This view was followed by many other scholars, such as Luling and Christoph Günther Luxemberg. </span><span title="Karya terbaru yang menghimpun beberapa hasil kajian historis-kritis ala Geiger ini adalah buku yang diedit oleh Tilman Nagel, yaitu Der Koran und sein religiöses und kulturelles Umfeld (2010).">Recent work which gathers some of the results of historical-critical study of Geiger-style this is the book edited by Tilman Nagel, the newspaper Der und sein und religiöses kulturelles Umfeld (2010). </span><span title="Para sarjana ini menganggap Alquran sebagai teks 'epigonik' dalam arti bahwa Alquran merupakan imitasi dari teks-teks pra-Islam.">These scholars regard the Qur'an as a text 'epigonik' in the sense that the Koran is an imitation of pre-texts of Islam. </span><span title="Pandangan ini tentu saja menjadi sangat kontroversial di kalangan sarjana Muslim.">The view is of course a very controversial among Muslim scholars.<br />
</span><span title="Meskipun demikian, tidak semua sarjana Barat sepakat dengan pandangan tersebut di atas.">However, not all Western scholars agree with the view of the above. </span><span title="Banyak sarjana Barat lainnya, seperti Anglika Neuwirth, Nicolai Sinai, Michael Marx, dan Dirk Hartwig mengkritik pandangan dan temuan di atas.">Many other Western scholars, such as Anglika Neuwirth, Nicolai Sinai, Michael Marx, and Dirk Hartwig criticizes the views and findings above. </span><span title="Berdasarkan wawancara dengan mereka pada tanggal 2 Juli 2010 dan beberapa artikel, diketahui bahwa mereka tidak setuju dengan kesimpulan bahwa Alquran hanyalah salinan 'teks-teks pra-Islam'.">Based on interviews with them on July 2, 2010 and several articles, it is known that they do not agree with the conclusion that the Koran is just a copy of 'pre-texts of Islam'. </span><span title="Untuk mendukung posisi ini, mereka telah melakukan beberapa penelitian.">To support this position, they have been doing some research. </span><span title="Salah satunya adalah proyek yang mereka sebut dengan Corpus Coranicum, yang sedang dilakukan di Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften di Jerman.">One is a project which they called the Corpus Coranicum, which is being conducted in Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften in Germany.<br />
</span><span title="Dalam proyek ini, mereka menggunakan pendekatan yang sama seperti yang dilakukan oleh Abraham Geiger, tetapi dengan paradigma yang berbeda.">In this project, they use the same approach as that of Abraham Geiger, but with a different paradigm. </span><span title="Tidak seperti Geiger, mereka memandang Alquran sebagai 'teks polifonik' dan bukan mimesis (tiruan) dari teks-teks sebelumnya.">Unlike Geiger, they regard the Qur'an as 'polyphonic text' and not mimesis (imitation) of the earlier texts. </span><span title="Tren penelitian semacam ini bisa disebut dengan 'tren baru studi historis-kritis terhadap Alquran'.">Trends in research of this kind can be called a 'new trend of the historical-critical study of the Koran'. </span><span title="Proyek ini terdiri atas tiga kerja utama, sebagai berikut.">This project consists of three main work, as follows.<br />
</span><span title="Pertama, para sarjana tersebut membuat dokumentasi tentang manuskrip-manuskrip Quran awal berikut variasi qira'at.">First, these scholars make a documentary about the early Quran manuscripts qira'at following variations. </span><span title="Namun, pendokumentasian ini tidak bertujuan untuk membuat teks edisi kritis Alquran.">However, this documentation does not aim to make the text a critical edition of the Koran. </span><span title="Dalam hal manuskrip Alquran, mereka membuat data bank tentang lokasi, penanggalan, dan aspek-aspek paleografis dari setiap manuskrip.">In terms of manuscripts of the Koran, they create a data bank about the location, date, and paleografis aspects of each manuscript. </span><span title="Saat ini, bank data terdiri atas 250 entri dan setiap entri memiliki sejumlah foto manuskrip.">Currently, the data bank consists of 250 entries and each entry has a number of photographs of manuscripts. </span><span title="Jumlah foto yang telah digitalisasi dalam beberapa komputer saat ini 3.500.">The number of photos that have been digitized in a computer currently 3,500. </span><span title="Adapun dalam bank data tentang variasi bacaan Alquran, seseorang dapat menemukan semua cara baca (qira'at) Alquran, baik qira'at yang dianggap sebagai qira'at mutawatirah (diriwayatkan oleh sejumlah besar perawi), qira'at masyhurah (diriwayatkan oleh relatif banyak">The variation in the data bank on reading the Qur'an, one can find all means read (qira'at) the Koran, which is considered as a good qira'at qira'at mutawatirah (narrated by a large number of narrators), qira'at masyhurah (narrated by a relatively large </span><span title="perawi), maupun qira'at syadzdzah (yang tidak termasuk kedua macam qira'at tersebut).">narrator), and qira'at syadzdzah (which excludes these two kinds qira'at).<br />
</span><span title="Kedua, para sarjana yang terlibat dalam proyek tersebut juga melakukan penelitian dan kajian serta membuat bank data terkait dengan apa yang mereka sebut dengan Texte aus der Welt des Quran (teks-teks di sekitar Alquran).">Second, scholars involved in the project also conducts research and studies as well as create a data bank related to what they called the texte aus der Welt des Koran (texts around the Qur'an). </span><span title="Dalam hal ini, mereka berupaya mencari kemiripan teks Alquran dengan teks-teks lain pada masa turunnya wahyu Quran.">In this case, they are seeking similarities Quranic text with other texts on the revelation of the Quran. </span><span title="Kajian semacam ini dikenal dengan istilah 'intertekstualitas' antara ayat-ayat Aquran dan teks-teks dari tradisi pra-Islam, seperti Alkitab, teks Yahudi pasca-biblikal, dan puisi Arab klasik.">This kind of study known as 'intertekstualitas' between the verses Aquran and texts from pre-Islamic traditions, like the Bible, post-biblical Jewish texts, and classical Arabic poetry. </span><span title="Intertekstualitas ini, menurut mereka, merupakan fondasi yang sangat berarti bagi upaya rekonstruksi teks-teks yang ada di sekitar Alquran (Marx 2008:51; Wawancara 2 Juli 2010).">Intertekstualitas this, they say, is a significant foundation for the reconstruction effort texts that surround the Qur'an (Marx 2008:51; Interview July 2, 2010).<br />
</span><span title="Namun, berbeda dari orientalis-orientalis lain pada abad ke-19 yang berpandangan bahwa Alquran adalah imitasi/tiruan dari teks-teks pra-Islam, para sarjana ini telah melakukan riset seobjektif mungkin dan mereka sampai pada kesimpulan bahwa Alquran bukanlah 'teks epigonik' yang">However, it differs from other orientalist orientalist-in the 19th century which holds that the Qur'an is the imitation / replica of the texts pre-Islamic, these scholars have been doing research as objective as possible and they came to the conclusion that the Koran is not a 'text epigonik' which </span><span title="merupakan hasil imitasi beberapa teks lain dari tradisi pra-Islam.">Imitation is the result of some other texts from the pre-Islamic tradition. </span><span title="(Neuwirth 2008:16; Wawancara 1 Juli 2010).">(Neuwirth 2008:16; Interview July 1, 2010). </span><span title="Mereka menegaskan, bahwa Alquran meskipun dalam beberapa kasus memiliki paralelitas dan kemiripan dengan teks-teks lain, tetapi ia merupakan teks 'independen' yang memiliki karakteristik sendiri dan dinamikanya sendiri, baik dari segi bahasa maupun isi.">They assert, that the Qur'an although in some cases have paralelitas and similarities with other texts, but it is a text 'independent' which has its own characteristics and its own dynamics, both in terms of both language and content.<br />
</span><span title="Sebagai contoh, Neuwirth membandingkan antara surat al-Rahman dan Zabur dan membuktikan bahwa meskipun kedua teks ini memiliki paralelitas/interseksi, tetapi Alquran memiliki gaya sendiri dalam hal struktur sastra dan spirit yang spesifik dalam hal isi dan pesan (Neuwirth 2008:157-189)">For example, Neuwirth to compare between the letter al-Rahman and the Psalms, and proved that although these two texts have paralelitas / intersection, but the Qur'an has its own style in terms of structure-specific literature and spirit in terms of content and message (Neuwirth 2008:157-189) </span><span title=".">. </span><span title="Kesimpulan yang sama juga dibuktikan oleh Nicolai Sinai ketika meneliti QS.">The same conclusion is also evidenced by Nicolai Sinai when researching QS. </span><span title="An-Najm.">An-Najm. </span><span title="Seiring dengan temuan ini, Dirk Hartwig, ketika diwawancarai tanggal 2 Juli, mengkritik Christoph Luxemberg yang mengatakan bahwa Alquran adalah salinan teks dari tradisi Kristen yang berbahasa Syro-Aramaik.">Along with these findings, Dirk Hartwig, when interviewed on July 2, Christoph Luxemberg criticized as saying that the Koran is a text copy of the Christian tradition of the Syro-Aramaic language.<br />
</span><span title="Ketiga, mereka telah dan sedang memproduksi apa yang mereka sebut der historisch-kritische literaturwissenschaftliche Kommentar des Quran (interpretasi historis-kritis dan sastrawi terhadap Alquran).">Third, they have been and are producing what they call a historical-der kritische literaturwissenschaftliche Kommentar des Koran (the interpretation of historical and literary-critical of the Koran). </span><span title="Struktur interpretasi ini terdiri atas empat elemen.">This interpretation of the structure consists of four elements. </span><span title="Unsur pertama adalah teks Alquran dan terjemahannya dalam bahasa Jerman.">The first element is the text of the Qur'an and its translation in German. </span><span title="Teks Arab didasarkan pada qiara'at Hafsh dari 'Asim.">Arabic text is based on qiara'at Hafs from 'Asim. </span><span title="Terjemahan Alquran sebagian besar berasal dari terjemahan Rudi Paret dengan beberapa penyesuaian tertentu.">Translation of the Qur'an mostly comes from Rudi Paret translation with some specific adjustments. </span><span title="Studi tentang urutan kronologis wahyu merupakan elemen kedua interpretasi mereka.">Studies of the chronological order of revelation is the second element of their interpretation.<br />
</span><span title="Mereka ingin merekonstruksi dinamika teks Alquran ber kaitan dengan aspek linguistik/sastranya.">They want to reconstruct the dynamics of the Quranic text had to do with aspects of the linguistic / literary. </span><span title="Juga, apa yang mereka sebut “kritik sastra” dalam arti mereka memberikan penjelasan struktur sastra Alquran dalam menyampaikan pesan tertentu.">Also, what they call "literary criticism" in the sense that they provide an explanation of literary structure of the Qur'an in conveying a particular message.</span></span><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Juga, apa yang mereka sebut “kritik sastra” dalam arti mereka memberikan penjelasan struktur sastra Alquran dalam menyampaikan pesan tertentu.">Source; Republika.online </span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-64010018950817745672011-12-16T19:03:00.000-08:002011-12-16T19:03:07.392-08:0060 Punk Children in Aceh cleared by Sharia police<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/gundul1.jpeg?w=434&h=256" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="218" src="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/gundul1.jpeg?w=434&h=256" width="320" /></a></div><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">As reported by</span> <span class="hps">AFP news agency on</span> <span class="hps atn">Wednesday (</span><span>12.14.2011</span><span>)</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">the arrest</span> <span class="hps">was conducted</span> <span class="hps">on Saturday</span> <span class="hps">(10/12)</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">in Banda</span> <span class="hps">Aceh</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">A total of</span> <span class="hps">59</span> <span class="hps">young</span> <span class="hps">men</span> <span class="hps">and 5</span> <span class="hps">women</span> <span class="hps">arrested by police</span> <span class="hps">sharia</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">The youths</span> <span class="hps">shaved</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">women</span> <span class="hps">cut</span> <span class="hps">their</span> <span class="hps">hair short</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">They were</span> <span class="hps">then</span> <span class="hps">told to</span> <span class="hps">bathe in</span> <span class="hps">the lake</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">then</span> <span class="hps">changed clothes</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">prayers</span><span>.</span><br />
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<span class="hps atn">"</span><span class="">We are concerned that</span> <span class="hps">if the application of</span> <span class="hps">Islamic sharia law</span> <span class="hps">in this province</span> <span class="hps">would be tarnished</span> <span class="hps">by</span> <span class="hps">their</span> <span class="hps">activities</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">We hope</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">by sending</span> <span class="hps">them</span> <span class="hps">to rehab</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">they</span> <span class="hps">will soon</span> <span class="hps">repent</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps atn">"</span><span>said Deputy</span> <span class="hps">Mayor of</span> <span class="hps">Banda</span> <span class="hps">Aceh</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">Illiza</span> <span class="hps">Sa'aduddin</span> <span class="hps">Djamal</span> <span class="hps">who ordered</span> <span class="hps">the arrests.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">At that time,</span> <span class="hps">hundreds of</span> <span class="hps">punk</span> <span class="hps">fans</span> <span class="hps">from different</span> <span class="hps">regions</span> <span class="hps">had come</span> <span class="hps">to Banda</span> <span class="hps">Aceh to</span> <span class="hps">attend a</span> <span class="hps">concert</span> <span class="hps">held</span> <span class="hps">to raise money</span> <span class="hps">for orphans</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">However</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">when</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">police</span> <span class="hps">also</span> <span class="hps">raided</span> <span class="hps">the location of</span> <span class="hps">the concert</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">catch people</span> <span class="hps">who look</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">punk</span> <span class="hps">mohawk</span> <span class="hps">hair</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">tattoos and</span> <span class="hps">tight</span> <span class="hps">jeans</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">a full</span> <span class="hps">chain</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">After the</span> <span class="hps">arrest</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">they</span> <span class="hps">brought</span> <span class="hps">home</span> <span class="hps">a</span> <span class="hps">moral</span> <span class="hps">rehabilitation</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">will</span> <span class="hps">be there</span> <span class="hps">for 10</span> <span class="hps">days.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">According to police</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">these arrests</span> <span class="hps">are</span> <span class="hps">carried out</span> <span class="hps">in order to prevent</span> <span class="hps">these</span> <span class="hps">young men and women</span> <span class="hps">of</span> <span class="hps">the behavior of</span> <span class="hps atn">'</span><span>deviant</span><span>'</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps atn">"</span><span>They never</span> <span class="hps">bathe</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">they</span> <span class="hps">lived</span> <span class="hps">on the streets</span><span>, never</span> <span class="hps">to pray</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">We</span> <span class="hps">need to fix</span> <span class="hps">them</span> <span class="hps">so that</span> <span class="hps">they</span> <span class="hps">can</span> <span class="hps">behave</span> <span class="hps">morally</span> <span class="hps">correct</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">appropriate</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">They need</span> <span class="hps">treatment</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">decisively to</span> <span class="hps">alter</span> <span class="hps">their mental</span> <span class="hps">behavior</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">"said</span> <span class="hps">provincial police chief,</span> <span class="hps">Inspector General of</span> <span class="hps">Police</span> <span class="hps">Iskandar</span> <span class="hps">Hasan</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Aceh</span> <span class="hps">police</span> <span class="hps">and government</span> <span class="hps">actions</span> <span class="hps">have been</span> <span class="hps">appropriate for</span> <span class="hps">the local</span> <span class="hps">rules</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">however</span> <span class="hps">these</span> <span class="hps">liberal</span> <span class="hps">NGOs</span> <span class="hps">meddling</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">Aceh's</span> <span class="hps">sharia</span> <span class="hps">police action</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">This rule was</span> <span class="hps">criticized</span> <span class="hps">local</span> <span class="hps">activists</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">Evi</span> <span class="hps">Narti</span> <span class="hps">Zain</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">The arrest</span> <span class="hps">is considered</span> <span class="hps">arbitrary and</span> <span class="hps">violate human rights.</span> <span class="hps atn">"</span><span>What</span> <span class="hps">do</span> <span class="hps">the police</span> <span class="hps">really</span> <span class="hps">weird</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Being a</span> <span class="hps">punk</span> <span class="hps">is</span> <span class="hps">a lifestyle</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Such people do</span> <span class="hps">exist around the</span> <span class="hps">world and they</span> <span class="hps">do not violate</span> <span class="hps">any</span> <span class="hps">rules or</span> <span class="hps">harming others</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps atn">"</span><span class="">he said</span><span>.</span></span><br />
<div class="g-unit" id="gt-src-c"><div id="gt-src-p"><div class="" id="gt-src-wrap"><div style="width: 100%;"><textarea autocomplete="off" class="goog-textarea" dir="ltr" id="source" name="text" spellcheck="false" style="-moz-box-sizing: border-box; height: 23px; overflow-x: auto; overflow-y: hidden; padding-bottom: 32px; padding-right: 20px; width: 15px;" tabindex="0" wrap="SOFT">te</textarea></div></div></div></div><div class="almost_half_cell" id="gt-res-content"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/gundul5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/gundul5.jpg" /></a></div><div dir="ltr" style="zoom: 1;"><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"> </span></span></div><div dir="ltr"><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">Not just</span> <span class="hps">a nosy</span> <span class="hps">local</span> <span class="hps">NGOs</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">foreign ambassadors</span> <span class="hps">had come to</span> <span class="hps">interfere in</span> <span class="hps">the affairs of</span> <span class="hps">local regulations</span> <span class="hps">as well as</span> <span class="hps">Aceh</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Aceh</span> <span class="hps">Police Chief</span> <span class="hps">Inspector General</span> <span class="hps">Iskandar</span> <span class="hps">Hasan</span> <span class="hps">claimed</span> <span class="hps">ambassadors</span> <span class="hps">called by</span> <span class="hps">two</span> <span class="hps">friendly countries</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">Thursday, December 15, 2011</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">This was said by</span> <span class="hps">Alexander</span> <span class="hps">at</span> <span class="hps">the invitation of</span> <span class="hps">the House of Representatives</span> <span class="hps">of Aceh</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span>DPRA</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">to report on</span> <span class="hps">security conditions</span> <span class="hps">in Aceh</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">explain</span> <span class="hps">about the</span> <span class="hps">raids</span> <span class="hps">that</span> <span class="hps">police</span> <span class="hps">routinely held</span> <span class="hps">the last two weeks</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps atn">"</span><span>It's the</span> <span class="hps">punk</span> <span class="hps">kids</span> <span class="hps">catch</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">I</span> <span class="hps">got a call</span> <span class="hps">two</span> <span class="hps">ambassadors</span> <span class="hps">yesterday</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">namely</span> <span class="hps">Germany</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">France</span><span>,</span><span>"</span> <span class="hps">said</span> <span class="hps">Iskandar</span> <span class="hps">told</span> <span class="hps">members of</span> <span class="hps">Parliament</span> <span class="hps">Aceh.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">According to him</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">ambassadors</span> <span class="hps">of two</span> <span class="hps">countries</span> <span class="hps">were</span> <span class="hps">asked why</span> <span class="hps">the police</span> <span class="hps">arrested</span> <span class="hps">punk</span> <span class="hps">kids</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">He admitted that he</span> <span class="hps">wondered why</span> <span class="hps">so much</span> <span class="hps">attention</span> <span class="hps">to foreign</span> <span class="hps">countries and</span> <span class="hps">media</span><span>-related</span> <span class="hps">arrests and</span> <span class="hps">coaching</span> <span class="hps">children</span> <span class="hps">in Aceh</span> <span class="hps">punk</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">The ambassador</span> <span class="hps">also asked</span> <span class="hps">why</span> <span class="hps">they were</span> <span class="hps">pushed into</span> <span class="hps">the pool</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps atn">"</span><span>I</span> <span class="hps">say</span> <span class="hps">this</span> <span class="hps">tradition.</span> <span class="hps">I</span> <span class="hps">just</span> <span class="hps">entered</span> <span class="hps">Akpol</span> <span class="hps">time</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">Police Academy</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">was</span> <span class="hps">also</span> <span class="hps">pushed into</span> <span class="hps">the pool</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps atn">"</span><span>he said</span> <span class="hps">to laughter from</span> <span class="hps">some members of the</span> <span class="hps">DPRA</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Foreign media</span> <span class="hps">are preaching</span> <span class="hps">this</span> <span class="hps">case</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">New</span> <span class="hps">York Daily</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">The Telegraph</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">Washington</span> <span class="hps">Post</span><span>, the Daily</span> <span class="hps">Mail</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">Sydney</span> <span class="hps">Morning</span> <span class="hps">Herald</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">CBS</span> <span class="hps">News</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">so on</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">They</span> <span class="hps">wrote that</span> <span class="hps">the average</span> <span class="hps">child's</span> <span class="hps">arrest</span> <span class="hps">and the</span> <span class="hps">driver of</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">punk</span> <span class="hps">who</span> <span class="hps">violates</span> <span class="hps">Human Rights</span></span></div><div dir="ltr"><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"> </span></span></div><div dir="ltr"><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">source: http://kabarnet.wordpress.com/2011/12/16/60-anak-punk-digunduli-polisi-syariah-aceh/ </span></span></div></div></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-39914493600119930602011-12-16T18:53:00.000-08:002011-12-16T18:53:28.390-08:00Iran Share Stories of Women, Rights, and the Islamic World in Yogyakarta<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://static.republika.co.id/uploads/images/headline/perempuan-iran-_111215162721-411.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="231" src="http://static.republika.co.id/uploads/images/headline/perempuan-iran-_111215162721-411.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Yogyakarta--Tiga perempuan dari Iran membagi cerita mereka tentang perempuan, hak asasi, dan dunia Islam dengan masyarakat Yogyakarta, Kamis (15/12).">Yogyakarta - Three women of Iran to share their stories about women, human rights and the Islamic world with the people of Yogyakarta, Thursday (15/12). </span><span title="Mereka adalah Fereshteh Ruh Afza, Tahereh Nazari, dan Shayesteh Khuy.">They are Fereshteh Ruh Afza, Tahereh Nazari, and Shayesteh Khuy.<br />
</span><span title="Mereka bukan perempuan Iran biasa.">They are not ordinary Iranian women. </span><span title="Fereshteh Ruh Afza adalah perempuan terpilih tahun 2010 dari Presiden Republik Islam Iran serta pengelola program TV untuk perbandingan hak-hak perempuan antara Islam dan Barat.">Fereshteh Ruh Afza were women elected in 2010 from the President of the Islamic Republic of Iran as well as TV programs manager for the comparison of women's rights between Islam and the West. </span><span title="Tahereh Nazari adalah ketua Komite Internasional Dewan Kebudayaan Sosial Perempuan Republik Islam Iran sekaligus sebagai direktur urusan internasional hak asasi perempuan.">Tahereh Nazari is chairman of the International Committee of Women Social Cultural Council of the Islamic Republic of Iran as well as international affairs director of women's rights. </span><span title="Sedangkan Shayesteh Khuy merupakan seorang guru dan pengurus divisi perempuan Pusat Konsultasi Astan-e Qods-e Razavi, Mashad, Republik Islam Iran.">Meanwhile, Shayesteh Khuy is a division of female teachers and administrators Consultation Center Astan-e Qods-e Razavi, Mashad, Islamic Republic of Iran.<br />
</span><span title="Ketiga perempuan Iran tersebut sengaja didatangkan ke Indonesia untuk membagi cerita tentang perempuan dalam perjuangan untuk hak asasi dalam dunia Islam.">Third Iranian women are accidentally imported into Indonesia to share stories about women in the struggle for human rights in the Islamic world. </span><span title="Menurut penyelenggara, ketua Raushan Fikr Institute, AM Safwan, Indonesia patut belajar dari Iran soal hak asasi perempuan.">According to organizers, the chairman of Raushan Fikr Institute, AM Safwan, Indonesia should learn from Iran about women's rights.<br />
</span><span title="Iran, yang terkesan sangat fundamentalis, faktanya merupakan negara yang sangat terbuka.">Iran, which seem very fundamentalist, the fact is a very open country. </span><span title="Hal itu terlihat dari sistem pemerintahan maupun hukum yang ada.">It was seen from the system of government and law. </span><span title="Di Indonesia sebagai negara demokrasi, kata Safwan, faktanya seorang perempuan tergantung suami dalam kasus perceraian.">In Indonesia as a democracy, said Safwan, the fact of a woman depends on her husband in a divorce case. </span><span title="Juga dalam dunia politik, Iran lebih terbuka untuk perempuan.">Also in the political world, Iran is more open to women.<br />
</span><span title=""Selain itu, mereka juga memperkenalkan keadilan di dunia terkait perempuan," kata Safwan pada Republika.">"In addition, they also introduce fairness in the world related to women," said Safwan on Reuters. </span><span title="Safwan menambahkan, yang paling patut kita pelajari adalah kekuatan bertahan Iran karena mampu bertahan dari tekanan Barat.">Safwan added, the most we should learn is the power of Iran since last able to withstand the pressure of the West.<br />
</span><span title="Dalam uraiannya, Fereshteh Ruh Afza lebih banyak mengungkapkan persoalan media yang semakin lama menganggap perempuan hanya sebatas obyek penarik bagi larisnya program-program mereka.">In his description, Fereshteh Ruh Afza more revealing of media issues that the longer considers objects of women was limited towing for his best-selling their programs. </span><span title="Tareheh Nazari lebih banyak bercerita tentang peran perempuan dalam masyarakat Islam, terutama di Iran.">Tareheh Nazari tells more about the role of women in Islamic societies, especially in Iran.<br />
</span><span title="Lalu Shayesteh Khuy yang seorang guru menceritakan peran perempuan dalam kebangkitan Islam.">Then Shayesteh Khuy that a teacher tells of women's role in the rise of Islam. </span><span title="Menurutnya, gerakan perjuangan perempuan memiliki dua tahap, pertama saat penguasaan imperialis Barat dan Timur pertengahan abad ke-20, dan tahap kedua adalah peristiwa revolusi Islam di Iran oleh Khomeini.">According to him, the struggle of women's movement has two stages, first when the imperialist domination of Western and Eastern mid-20th century, and the second stage is the events of the Islamic revolution in Iran by Khomeini. </span><span title="Namun, lanjut Khuy, gerakan perempuan itu melemah karena adanya tekanan oleh pihak imperialis.">However, continued Khuy, the women's movement was weakened because of pressure by the imperialist.</span></span><br />
<br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Namun, lanjut Khuy, gerakan perempuan itu melemah karena adanya tekanan oleh pihak imperialis.">source: http://www.republika.co.id/berita/dunia-islam/islam-mancanegara/11/12/15/lw8nls-iran-berbagi-cerita-perempuan-hak-asasi-dan-dunia-islam-di-yogyakarta </span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-15933132074406206832011-12-16T18:26:00.000-08:002011-12-16T18:26:15.472-08:00Again, Israel burned 2 Moesque<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">Palestinian</span> <span class="hps">local government</span> <span class="hps">on Thursday</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span>15/12/2011</span><span>)</span> <span class="hps">catapult</span> <span class="hps">criticism</span> <span class="hps">to the government of</span> <span class="hps">Israel</span> <span class="hps">who</span> <span class="hps">invaded</span> <span class="hps">their land</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">because it</span> <span class="hps">seemed to</span> <span class="hps">deliberately let</span> <span class="hps">Jewish</span> <span class="hps">extremist</span> <span class="hps">groups</span> <span class="hps">to act</span> <span class="hps">brutally</span> <span class="hps">without</span> <span class="hps">any</span> <span class="hps">threat of</span> <span class="hps">punitive sanctions</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">It was reported that</span> <span class="hps">Jewish</span> <span class="hps">extremists</span> <span class="hps">in Israel</span> <span class="hps">burn</span> <span class="hps">again</span> <span class="hps">two</span> <span class="hps">mosques</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">scrawling</span> <span class="hps">other</span> <span class="hps">mosques</span> <span class="hps">with graffiti</span> <span class="hps">that read</span> <span class="hps">dirty</span> <span class="hps">words</span> <span class="hps">in Hebrew</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps atn">"</span><span>The burning of</span> <span class="hps">the mosque</span> <span class="hps">is</span> <span class="hps">a</span> <span class="hps">declaration</span> <span class="hps">of war</span> <span class="hps">by a</span> <span class="hps">group of</span> <span class="hps">Jewish</span> <span class="hps">settlers</span> <span class="hps">against Palestinians</span><span>,</span><span>" said</span> <span class="hps">presidential spokesman</span> <span class="hps">Nabil</span> <span class="hps">Abu</span> <span class="hps">Rudeina</span> <span class="hps">as quoted</span> <span class="hps">by</span> <span class="hps">AFP news agency</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">The criticism of</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">Palestinian</span> <span class="hps">response to the events</span> <span class="hps">burqa</span> <span class="hps">burning</span> <span class="hps">mosques in</span> <span class="hps">the area</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">in</span> <span class="hps">the West Bank</span><span>, Palestine</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Reported</span> <span class="hps">that the</span> <span class="hps">mosque</span> <span class="hps">was</span> <span class="hps">burned</span> <span class="hps">after</span> <span class="hps">dicorat</span><span class="atn">-</span><span>graffiti</span> <span class="hps">with graffiti</span> <span class="hps">that read</span> <span class="hps">dirty</span> <span class="hps">words</span> <span class="hps">in Hebrew</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Within seven days of</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">week</span><span class="">, there was</span> <span class="hps">the burning</span> <span class="hps">of</span> <span class="hps">two</span> <span class="hps">mosques</span> <span class="hps">by</span> <span class="hps">Jewish extremists</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">On Tuesday</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">12/13/2011</span><span>)</span><span>, a group of</span> <span class="hps">Jewish extremists</span> <span class="hps">tried to</span> <span class="hps">set fire to a</span> <span class="hps">mosque</span> <span class="hps">in downtown</span> <span class="hps">Jerusalem</span> <span class="hps">again</span> <span class="hps">after</span> <span class="hps">all</span> <span class="hps">dicorat</span><span class="atn">-</span><span>graffiti</span> <span class="hps">walls</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">slogans</span> <span class="hps">racist</span> <span class="hps">anti</span><span class="atn">-</span><span>Arab</span> <span class="hps">and anti</span><span>-Islamic</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">The incident</span> <span class="hps">left alone</span> <span class="hps">by the government</span> <span class="hps">of Israel.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Some</span> <span class="hps">photographs showing</span> <span class="hps">graffiti</span> <span class="hps">graffiti</span> <span class="hps">on</span> <span class="hps">walls and</span> <span class="hps">doors of the mosque</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">which</span> <span class="hps">reads</span> <span class="hps">sentences</span> <span class="hps">shabby</span> <span class="hps">in Hebrew</span><span>:</span></span><br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/mosque-10.jpg?w=510&h=340" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/mosque-10.jpg?w=510&h=340" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/mosque-4.jpg?w=532&h=354" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/mosque-4.jpg?w=532&h=354" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/mosque-8.jpg?w=535&h=391" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="233" src="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/mosque-8.jpg?w=535&h=391" width="320" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/quran-dibakar.jpg?w=536&h=369" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="220" src="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/quran-dibakar.jpg?w=536&h=369" width="320" /></a></div><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span> source: http://kabarnet.wordpress.com/2011/12/16/israel-bakar-lagi-2-masjid/</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-90186801980777047382011-12-16T18:15:00.000-08:002011-12-16T18:15:07.036-08:00Iran Will Unloading U.S. Stealth Aircraft<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/pesawat-us1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="177" src="http://kabarnet.files.wordpress.com/2011/12/pesawat-us1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Pesawat siluman itu akan dipreteli untuk menyingkap teknologi canggih yang digunakan, untuk kemudian diproduksi ulang.">Stealth aircraft will be stripped down to reveal the advanced technology used, and then reproduced. </span><span title="Kepala Parlemen Iran Komisi Keamanan Nasional, Parviz Sorouri menyatakan hal itu dalam sebuah siaran televisi Iran yang dikutip oleh kantor berita AFP.">Head of the Iranian Parliament's National Security Commission, Parviz Sorouri declare it in an Iranian television quoted by AFP news agency.<br />
</span><span title="“Selanjutnya kami akan melakukan tindakan membongkar mesin pesawat tersebut.">"Then we will take action to disassemble the aircraft engine. </span><span title="Kami akan mampu memproduksinya secara massal di masa yang akan datang.">We will be able to produce it in bulk in the future. </span><span title="Insinyur-insinyur Iran akan segera membuat pesawat yang lebih unggul dari Amerika dengan metode reverse-engineering,” ujar Parviz Sorouri, Rabu (14/12/2011).">Iranian engineers will soon make a plane that is superior to America by the method of reverse-engineering, "said Parviz Sorouri, Wednesday (12/14/2011).<br />
</span><span title="Lebih lanjut Sorouri menyatakan bahwa insinyur-insinyur Iran telah sampai pada tahap akhir dalam memecahkan kode-kode rahasia yang terdapat pada pesawat AS itu.">Sorouri further stated that Iranian engineers have reached the final stage in breaking secret codes found on U.S. aircraft. </span><span title="Tahapan berikutnya, teknologi dan rahasia yang ada pada pesawat tak berawak tersebut akan mampu dipelajari oleh Iran.">The next stage, technology and secrets that exist on the unmanned aircraft will be able to learn by Iran.<br />
</span><span title="“Informasi intelijen yang berharga akan bisa kami peroleh dengan menguraikan metode spionase dan intelijen rahasia AS, segera setelah kodenya dipecahkan,” tandas Sorouri.">"The information will be valuable intelligence that we get by outlining the methods the U.S. espionage and covert intelligence, immediately after the code is solved," said Sorouri.</span><span title="Iran: “Kami tidak perlu kerjasama dengan Rusia ataupun China.">Iran: "We do not need co-operation with Russia or China. </span><span title="Mereka tidak akan dilibatkan….”">They will not be involved .... "<br />
</span><span title="Kepala Parlemen Iran Komisi Keamanan Nasional tersebut juga menegaskan, bahwa Iran tidak akan bekerjasama dengan negara lain untuk membongkar dan mempelajari pesawat pengintai ini.">Head of the Iranian Parliament's National Security Commission also asserted that Iran will not cooperate with other countries to dismantle and study of this reconnaissance aircraft. </span><span title="Sorouri mengingatkan agar jangan memandang sebelah mata kemampuan Iran untuk membongkar pesawat canggih tersebut.">Sorouri warned against looking eye Iran's ability to dismantle these sophisticated aircraft.</span><span title="“Kami tidak perlu kerjasama dengan Rusia ataupun China.">"We do not need co-operation with Russia or China. </span><span title="Mereka tidak akan dilibatkan.">They will not be involved. </span><span title="Ini kemampuan pertahanan yang diberikan bagi kami, dan kami tidak siap untuk membaginya dengan yang lain.">This capability provided defense for us, and we are not ready to share it with others. </span><span title="Kami akan menggunakan ini untuk penangkalan.">We will use this to deterrence. </span><span title="Dan saya ragu bahwa Republik Islam akan membagi teknologi ini dengan negara-negara lainnya,” tandas Sorouri.">And I doubt that the Islamic Republic will share this technology with other countries, "said Sorouri.<br />
</span><span title="Menurut seorang anggota parlemen AS, Pesawat Siluman AS itu Jatuh Sendiri, Bukan dijatuhkan oleh Iran">According to a U.S. lawmaker, U.S. Stealth Aircraft Fall Alone, not imposed by Iran<br />
</span><span title="Sementara itu, anggota parlemen AS dari Komisi Intelijen, Mike Rogers, membantah klaim Iran yang beredar di media.">Meanwhile, U.S. lawmakers from the Commission on Intelligence, Mike Rogers, a claim Iran denies that circulated in the media. </span><span title="Rogers menegaskan bahwa masalah teknis yang membuat pesawat siluman tersebut jatuh, dan bukan dijatuhkan oleh Iran.">Rogers asserts that the technical problems that make stealth aircraft crashed, and not imposed by Iran.<br />
</span><span title="“Saya katakan tanpa ragu-ragu, bahwa ini tidak ada kaitannya dengan menjatuhkan pesawat tersebut, melainkan karena masalah teknis,” klaim Mike Rogers, seperti dilansir kantor berita AFP, pada hari Rabu (14/12/2011).">"I say without hesitation, that this has nothing to do with dropping the plane, but due to technical problems," claims Mike Rogers, as quoted by AFP news agency on Wednesday (14/12/2011).<br />
</span><span title="Bantahan senator Partai Republik tersebut artinya membantah klaim pemerintah Iran yang menyatakan pihaknya telah menjatuhkan pesawat siluman RQ-170 Sentinel milik AS pada 4 Desember yang lalu, ketika melintas di atas Kota Kashmar, sekitar 225 kilometer dari perbatasan Afghanistan.">Republican senators such denials mean the Iranian government has denied claims stating it had dropped the RQ-170 stealth aircraft belonging to the U.S. Sentinel on December 4 ago, when it passed over the city of Kashmar, about 225 kilometers from the Afghan border.<br />
</span><span title="Jatuhnya pesawat siluman AS tersebut ke tangan Iran merupakan tamparan keras di wajah pemerintah AS.">The fall of the U.S. stealth aircraft into the hands of Iran is a slap in the face of the U.S. government. </span><span title="Karena pesawat canggih kebanggan AS itu sengaja didesain untuk mampu menghindari deteksi radar, sehingga sangat susah untuk bisa ditembak langsung.">Because of the pride of the U.S. advanced aircraft was deliberately designed to be able to avoid radar detection, making it very difficult to be shot immediately. </span><span title="Karena itu Mike Rogers meragukan klaim yang menyebutkan bahwa Iran meretas kendali canggih yang ada di pesawat tersebut, Jatuhnya pesawat tersebut di wilayah Iran, menurutnya, lebih mungkin disebabkan oleh kerusakan atau masalah mesin.">Mike Rogers therefore dubious claim that says that Iran paved the sophisticated controls that exist in the plane, the plane fall in the territory of Iran, he said, is more likely caused by damage or engine problems.<br />
</span><span title="“Ada masalah teknis yang menjadi masalah kami, bukan masalah orang lain.">"There are technical issues that become our problems, not someone else's problem. </span><span title="Saya pikir dibutuhkan lebih banyak kerja humas di sini,” kata Mike Rogers.">I think it takes more PR work here, "said Mike Rogers.<br />
</span><span title="Pejabat AS Ragukan Kemampuan Iran membongkar dan mempelajari Pesawat Siluman AS, kecuali dibantu Rusia atau China">U.S. officials doubt Iran's ability to disassemble and study the U.S. Stealth Aircraft, unless assisted by Russia or China<br />
</span><span title="Selanjutnya, Mike Rogers meremehkan kemampuan Iran yang mengklaim mampu membongkar dan menganalisa pesawat RQ-170 Sentinel berteknologi canggih kebanggaan negaranya itu.">Next, Mike Rogers underestimate the ability of Iran's claim to be able to disassemble and analyze aircraft RQ-170 Sentinel technologically advanced country's pride.<br />
</span><span title="“Kabar baiknya: Ketika mereka sibuk menghabiskan waktu untuk membongkar dan merakit ulang, kita (AS) akan mempergunakan waktu itu untuk membuat yang baru, dan itulah perbedaan terbesarnya,” ujar Mike Rogers menambahkan.">"The good news: When they are too busy to spend time to disassemble and reassemble, we (the U.S.) will use that time to make new ones, and that's the biggest difference," said Mike Rogers added.<br />
</span><span title="Menurut perkiraan Rogers, Iran akan membutuhkan banyak waktu untuk mempelajari dan memproduksi ulang pesawat mata-mata itu.">According to estimates by Rogers, Iran would need a lot of time to study and reproduce the spy plane. </span><span title="Dan di saat yang sama, AS akan mengembangkan teknologi baru yang lebih canggih dari pesawat tersebut.">And at the same time, the U.S. will develop a new technology is more sophisticated than the aircraft.<br />
</span><span title="“Mereka sangat bangga bahwa mereka akan membongkar dan merakit ulang pesawat ini, dan saya pikir mereka akan menghabiskan waktu selama lima, enam, tujuh, bahkan delapan tahun untuk melakukan hal itu.">"They are very proud that they will disassemble and reassemble this plane, and I think they will spend five, six, seven, even eight years to do just that. </span><span title="Itu bagus bagi kita, karena saat itu kita telah melewati semuanya,” imbuhnya.">That's good for us, because at that time we have been through it all, "he added.<br />
</span><span title="Tak hanya Mike Rogers yang meragukan, seorang pejabat pemerintah AS yang menolak disebutkan namanya juga meragukan kemampuan Iran dalam menciptakan replika maupun duplikat pesawat mata-mata RQ-170 Sentinel tersebut.">Not only the dubious Mike Rogers, a U.S. government official who declined to be named also doubted the ability of Iran to create a replica or duplicate spy planes such RQ-170 Sentinel. </span><span title="Pejabat AS tersebut berpendapat bahwa Iran tidak akan mampu menduplikasi pesawat tersebut kalau tidak dibantu oleh Rusia atau China.">U.S. officials argue that Iran will not be able to duplicate the aircraft if not aided by Russia or China.<br />
</span><span title="“Kemampuan AS sangatlah canggih, dan tidak bisa dipastikan bahwa Iran memiliki kemampuan yang sama,” klaim pejabat pemerintah AS tersebut kepada reporter kantor berita AFP">"The ability of the U.S. is very sophisticated, and it is not certain that Iran has the same capabilities," claims the U.S. government official told AFP news agency reporter</span></span><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="“Kemampuan AS sangatlah canggih, dan tidak bisa dipastikan bahwa Iran memiliki kemampuan yang sama,” klaim pejabat pemerintah AS tersebut kepada reporter kantor berita AFP">source: http://kabarnet.wordpress.com/2011/12/17/iran-bongkar-sendiri-pesawat-siluman-as/ </span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-12623187297330694102011-12-02T08:26:00.000-08:002011-12-02T08:26:07.337-08:00President of Germany: Islam Part of Germany<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://img.antaranews.com/new/2011/12/ori/20111201PresidenJerman-011211-5.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://img.antaranews.com/new/2011/12/ori/20111201PresidenJerman-011211-5.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">JAKARTA</span> <span class="hps">-</span> <span class="hps">The German government</span> <span class="hps">wanted the</span> <span class="hps">Muslim</span> <span class="hps">country's</span> <span class="hps">relations</span> <span class="hps">with</span> <span class="hps">Indonesia</span> <span class="hps">more</span> <span class="hps">closely</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">This desire is</span> <span class="hps">not without reason</span><span>, given that</span> <span class="hps">Germany</span> <span class="hps">has made</span> <span class="hps">Islam as</span> <span class="hps">part</span> <span class="hps">of</span> <span class="hps">the State</span><span>'s</span><br />
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<span class="hps atn">"</span><span>We want</span> <span class="hps">more tightly</span> <span class="hps">between</span> <span class="hps">the Muslims</span> <span class="hps">in Germany</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">Indonesia</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">In October</span> <span class="hps">I</span> <span class="hps">delivered</span> <span class="hps">a speech</span> <span class="hps">of Islam</span> <span class="hps">has been</span> <span class="hps">part of Germany</span><span>,</span><span>"</span> <span class="hps">said President</span> <span class="hps">of the Federal Republic</span> <span class="hps">of Germany,</span> <span class="hps">Christian Wulff</span> <span class="hps">when giving a</span> <span class="hps">joint press</span> <span class="hps">keterangn</span> <span class="hps">with the President</span> <span class="hps">of the Republic of</span> <span class="hps">Indonesia</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">Susilo</span> <span class="hps">Bambang</span> <span class="hps">Yudhoyono</span> <span class="hps">at the Presidential Palace</span> <span class="hps">independent</span><span>, Thursday</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">1 / 12</span><span>)</span><span>.</span><br />
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<span class="hps">According to</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">experts on Islam</span> <span class="hps">in Germany</span> <span class="hps">is actively</span> <span class="hps">providing education</span> <span class="hps">on Islam</span> <span class="hps">in the country.</span> <span class="hps">While governments</span> <span class="hps">still</span> <span class="hps">maintain</span> <span class="hps">the right to</span> <span class="hps">obtain</span> <span class="hps">education</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps atn">"</span><span>If we</span> <span class="hps">help</span> <span class="hps">the</span> <span class="hps">world's</span> <span class="hps">religions</span> <span class="hps">there</span> <span class="hps">will be more</span> <span class="hps">peaceful</span><span>,</span><span>"</span> <span class="hps">he said</span><span>.</span><br />
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<span class="hps">Germany</span> <span class="hps">also</span> <span class="hps">praised the</span> <span class="hps">religious life in</span> <span class="hps">Indonesia</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Freedom</span> <span class="hps">in choosing</span> <span class="hps">a</span> <span class="hps">religion</span> <span class="hps">in the country</span> <span class="hps">has been</span> <span class="hps">in the development</span> <span class="hps">of democracy</span><span class="">.</span></span><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="">Sourchess: REPUBLIKA.CO.ID </span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-20286989816065283562011-11-24T06:34:00.000-08:002011-11-24T06:34:39.267-08:00God and Man in The Quran<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.deenresearchcenter.com/Portals/0/izutsu%20godnaman%20icon.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.deenresearchcenter.com/Portals/0/izutsu%20godnaman%20icon.jpg" /></a></div><br />
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<span class="Normal"><b><big>God and Man in The Quran </big></b><br />
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By prof. Toshihiko Izutsu.<br />
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Izutsu is considered one of the greatest scholars in Qur'anic linguistics and semantics that ever lived. His structuralistic approach has opened new fields into Qur'anic sciences.<br />
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This study is Izutsu's masterpiece and focuses on the main concept in the Qur'anic worldview and how they explain the relationship between mankind and God. These concepts are studied through a structuralist approach of how the words are used in the Qur'an, and how they were understood in Pre-Islamic Arabia. Izutsu's work shows that the Qur'an changed the Arab worldview, by changing the way they use their language.</span><br />
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<span class="Normal">Download : <a href="http://deenrc.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/izutsu-god-man-quran.pdf" target="_blank">PDF Here</a></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-47706127795407103822011-11-24T05:54:00.000-08:002011-11-24T05:54:10.598-08:00Major Themes of the Qur’an<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.deenresearchcenter.com/Portals/0/majorthemesFRahman-icon.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.deenresearchcenter.com/Portals/0/majorthemesFRahman-icon.jpg" /></a></div><br />
<span class="Normal"><b><big>Major Themes of the Qur’an</big></b><br />
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by prof.Fazlur Rahman <br />
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In this classic work, Rahman unravels the Qur’an’s complexities on themes such as God, society, revelation, and prophecy with the deep attachment of a Muslim educated in Islamic schools and the clarity of a scholar who taught for decades in the West. <br />
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<i>“Generations of scholars have profited from [Rahman’s] pioneering scholarly work by taking the questions he raised and the directions he outlined to new destinations.”</i><br />
--Ebrahim Moosa<br />
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<i>“The religious future of Islam and the future of interfaith relationship . . . will be livelier and saner for the sort of Quranic centrality which Major Themes of the Qur’an exemplifies and serves.”</i><br />
--Kenneth Cragg, Middle East Journal<br />
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<i>“There shines through [a] rare combination of balanced scholarly judgment and profound personal commitment. . . . [Rahman is] eager to open up the mysteries of the Qur’an to a shrinking world sorely in need of both moral regeneration and better mutual understanding.”</i><br />
--Patrick D. Gaffney, Journal of Religion<br />
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<i>“I can’t think of any book more important, still, than Major Themes of the Qur’an.”</i><br />
--Michael Sells, author of Approaching the Qur’an</span><br />
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<span class="Normal">Download: <a href="http://deenrc.files.wordpress.com/2008/03/izutsu-god-man-quran.pdf" target="_blank">PDF Here</a></span><br />
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</span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-81526081634796372332011-11-24T05:37:00.000-08:002011-11-24T05:41:45.870-08:00What Test-tube babies According to Islam?<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitRLpoxwbs3AIKL2lZTS4uNu4IsTW-yQ5QRzO1QJlsp6mWYZ573yTA0eZ2OLtnafWPp8MeISBvI2SV7aGKHKCsnN329CGwbqRt4gnIRYIP3HpRVaJX7SkFAL0qj7awZsP_bELCzcnF9CI/s1600/bayi-tabung2-ts-dpn.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="220" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitRLpoxwbs3AIKL2lZTS4uNu4IsTW-yQ5QRzO1QJlsp6mWYZ573yTA0eZ2OLtnafWPp8MeISBvI2SV7aGKHKCsnN329CGwbqRt4gnIRYIP3HpRVaJX7SkFAL0qj7awZsP_bELCzcnF9CI/s320/bayi-tabung2-ts-dpn.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Teknologi kedokteran modern semakin canggih.">Increasingly sophisticated technology of modern medicine. </span><span title="Salah satu tren yang berkembang saat ini adalah fenomena bayi tabung.">One of a growing trend today is the phenomenon of in vitro fertilization. </span><span title="Sejatinya, teknologi ini telah dirintis oleh PC Steptoe dan RG Edwards pada 1977.">Indeed, this technology has been pioneered by PC Steptoe and RG Edwards in 1977. </span><span title="Hingga kini, banyak pasangan yang kesulitan memperoleh anak, mencoba menggunakan teknologi bayi tabung.">Until now, many couples who have difficulty obtaining the child, try to use IVF technology.<br />
</span><span title="Bayi tabung dikenal dengan istilah pembuahan in vitro atau dalam bahasa Inggris dikenal sebagai in vitro fertilisation.">IVF is known as in vitro fertilization or in English is known as in vitro fertilization. </span><span title="Ini adalah sebuah teknik pembuahan sel telur (ovum) di luar tubuh wanita.">This is a technique of egg fertilization (ovum) outside the woman's body. </span><span title="Bayi tabung adalah salah satu metode untuk mengatasi masalah kesuburan ketika metode lainnya tidak berhasil.">IVF is one method to overcome fertility problems when other methods did not work.<br />
</span><span title="Prosesnya terdiri dari mengendalikan proses ovulasi secara hormonal, pemindahan sel telur dari ovarium dan pembuahan oleh sel sperma dalam sebuah medium cair.">The process consists of the hormonal control of ovulation process, the removal of eggs from the ovary and fertilized by a sperm cell in a liquid medium. </span><span title="Lalu bagaimanakah hukum bayi tabung dalam pandangan Islam?">Then how is the law of IVF in the view of Islam? </span><span title="Dua tahun sejak ditemukannya teknologi ini, para ulama di Tanah Air telah menetapkan fatwa tentang bayi tabung/inseminasi buatan.">Two years since the discovery of this technology, the scholars in the country has set a fatwa regarding IVF / artificial insemination.<br />
</span><span title="Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI) dalam fatwanya menyatakan bahwa bayi tabung dengan sperma dan ovum dari pasangan suami-istri yang sah hukumnya mubah (boleh).">Indonesian Ulema Council (MUI) in his fatwa stating that IVF with sperm and ovum of the couple husband and wife are legally permissible legal (allowed). </span><span title="Sebab, ini termasuk ikhtiar yang berdasarkan kaidah-kaidah agama.">Therefore, this includes efforts based on religious principles.<br />
</span><span title="Namun, para ulama melarang penggunaan teknologi bayi tabung dari pasangan suami-istri yang dititipkan di rahim perempuan lain.">However, the scholars prohibit the use of IVF technology of couples that are deposited in the womb of another woman. </span><span title=""Itu hukumnya haram," papar MUI dalam fatwanya.">"It is haraam," said the MUI fatwa. </span><span title="Apa pasal?">What article? </span><span title="Para ulama menegaskan, di kemudian hari hal itu akan menimbulkan masalah yang rumit dalam kaitannya dengan warisan.">The scholars assert, in the future it will lead to a complicated problem in relation to inheritance.<br />
</span><span title="Para ulama MUI dalam fatwanya juga memutuskan, bayi tabung dari sperma yang dibekukan dari suami yang telah meninggal dunia hukumnya haram.">The scholars in the MUI fatwa also decided, in vitro fertilization of frozen sperm from the husband who had died haraam. </span><span title=""Sebab, hal ini akan menimbulkan masalah yang pelik, baik dalam kaitannya dengan penentuan nasab maupun dalam hal kewarisan," tulis fatwa itu.">"Because, this will lead to a complicated problem, both in relation to the determination nasab and in terms of inheritance," wrote the fatwa.<br />
</span><span title="Lalu bagaimana dengan proses bayi tabung yang sperma dan ovumnya tak berasal dari pasangan suami-istri yang sah?">And what about the IVF process which sperm and artificially inseminated himself did not come from couples that legal? </span><span title="MUI dalam fatwanya secara tegas menyatakan hal tersebut hukumnya haram.">The MUI fatwa clearly states it is haraam. </span><span title="Alasannya, statusnya sama dengan hubungan kelamin antarlawan jenis di luar penikahan yang sah alias zina.">The reason is, its status as a sexual relationship outside marriage antarlawan type a valid alias adultery.<br />
</span><span title="Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) juga telah menetapkan fatwa terkait masalah ini dalam forum Munas Alim Ulama di Kaliurang, Yogyakarta pada 1981.">Nahdlatul Ulama (NU) has also set a fatwa related to this issue in the forum at the National Conference of Ulama Alim Kaliurang, Yogyakarta in 1981. </span><span title="Ada tiga keputusan yang ditetapkan ulama NU terkait masalah bayi tabung: Pertama, apabila mani yang ditabung dan dimasukan ke dalam rahim wani">There are three decisions that set the NU ulama IVF-related problems: First, if the semen is saved and inserted into the uterus wani</span><span title="ta tersebut ternyata bukan mani suami-istri yang sah, maka bayi tabung hukumnya haram.">ta it was not semen husband and wife are legitimate, then IVF is haraam.<br />
</span><span title="Hal itu didasarkan pada sebuah hadis yang diriwayatkan Ibnu Abbas RA, Rasulullah SAW bersabda, "Tidak ada dosa yang lebih besar setelah syirik dalam pandangan Allah SWT, dibandingkan perbuatan seorang lelaki yang meletakkan spermanya (berzina) di dalam rahim perempuan yang tidak halal baginya."">This was based on a hadith narrated by Ibn Abbas RA, Rasulullah SAW said, "There is no greater sin after shirk in the sight of Allah, than the act of a man who put his sperm (adultery) in the uterus of women who are not lawful for him."<br />
</span><span title="Kedua, apabila sperma yang ditabung tersebut milik suami-istri, tetapi cara mengeluarkannya tidak muhtaram, maka hukumnya juga haram.">Second, if the sperm are deposited belonged to the husband and wife, but not how to remove it muhtaram, then the law is also unlawful. </span><span title=""Mani muhtaram adalah mani yang keluar/dikeluarkan dengan cara yang tidak dilarang oleh syara'," papar ulama NU dalam fatwa itu.">"Mani is a seminal muhtaram out / removed in a manner that is not prohibited by the Personality '," said NU clerics in the fatwa.<br />
</span><span title="Terkait mani yang dikeluarkan secara muhtaram, para ulama NU mengutip dasar hukum dari Kifayatul Akhyar II/113.">Related to ejaculate in muhtaram, NU clerics cite the legal basis of Kifayatul Akhyar II/113. </span><span title=""Seandainya seorang lelaki berusaha mengeluarkan spermanya (dengan beronani) dengan tangan istrinya, maka hal tersebut diperbolehkan, karena istri memang tempat atau wahana yang diperbolehkan untuk bersenang-senang."">"If a man tried to remove his sperm (with masturbating) with his wife's hand, then it is permissible, because the wife's place or vehicle is allowed to have fun." </span><span title="Ketiga, apabila mani yang ditabung itu mani suami-istri dan cara mengeluarkannya termasuk muhtaram, serta dimasukan ke dalam rahim istri sendiri, maka hukum bayi tabung menjadi mubah (boleh).">Third, if the semen is deposited that semen husband and wife and how to remove it including muhtaram, and inserted into the womb of his own wife, then the law of IVF became permissible (allowed).<br />
</span><span title="Meski tak secara khusus membahas bayi tabung, Majelis Tarjih dan Tajdid PP Muhammadiyah juga telah menetapkan fatwa terkait boleh tidak nya menitipkan sperma suami-istri di rahim istri kedua.">Although not specifically discuss IVF, the Legal Affairs Committee and Tajdid PP Muhammadiyah also have set a fatwa associated should not leave her husband's sperm and wife in the womb a second wife. </span><span title="Dalam fatwanya, Majelis Tarjih dan Tajdid mengung kapkan, berdasarkan ijitihad jama'i yang dilakukan para ahli fikih dari berbagai pelosok dunia Islam, termasuk dari Indonesia yang diwakili Mu hammadiyah, hukum inseminasi buat an seperti itu termasuk yang dilarang.">In his fatwa, the Legal Affairs Committee and Tajdid reveal articulate, based on ijitihad jama'i conducted jurists from all over the Islamic world, including from Indonesia represented by Mu Muhammadiyah, for an insemination law like that including being banned.<br />
</span><span title=""Hal itu disebut dalam ketetapan yang keempat dari sidang periode ke tiga dari Majmaul Fiqhil Islamy dengan judul Athfaalul Anaabib (Bayi Tabung)," papar fatwa Majelis Tarjih PP Muhammadiyah.">"It was mentioned in the fourth provision of the trial period to three of the Majmaul Fiqhil Islamy by title Athfaalul Anaabib (IVF)," said the Legal Affairs Committee of Muhammadiyah fatwas. </span><span title="Rumusannya, "cara kelima inseminasi itu dilakukan di luar kandungan antara dua biji suami-istri, kemudian ditanamkan pada rahim istri yang lain (dari suami itu) ... hal itu dilarang menurut hukum Syara'."">Formulation, "the way the fifth insemination was done outside the womb between the two seed husband and wife, then implanted in the womb of another wife (the husband's) ... it is forbidden by law Personality '." </span><span title="Sebagai ajaran yang sempurna, Islam selalu mampu menjawab berbagai masalah yang terjadi di dunia modern saat ini.">As a perfect doctrine, Islam was always able to answer various problems occurring in today's modern world.</span></span><br />
<br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Sebagai ajaran yang sempurna, Islam selalu mampu menjawab berbagai masalah yang terjadi di dunia modern saat ini.">Sourches: republika.co.id </span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-31527642442526442742011-11-24T05:24:00.000-08:002011-11-24T05:24:06.113-08:00The all-out hypocrisy of Arab League and the West<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><b class="byline">Kourosh Ziabari Salem-News.com</b> <br />
<div class="subtitle">94 Yemenis were killed and over 800 injured since UN Resolution 2014 was issued... </div><table align="right" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width: 320px;"><tbody>
<tr><td align="right" class="cap"> <div class="cap" style="height: 200px; text-align: right;"> <img align="right" alt="Child demonstrating in Syria" class="story" hspace="0" src="http://www.salem-news.com/stimg/november232011/syria.jpg" vspace="0" /><br />
</div><div align="right" style="width: 320px;">Courtesy: politicsontoast.wordpress.com</div><br />
</td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="story">(TEHRAN) - After the Arab League hypocritically suspended the membership of Syria amid the mounting pressures of NATO and the United States, the resurgence of violence in Egypt and the increasing use of excessive force in Bahrain and Yemen and the unrelenting massacre of innocent civilians by the barbaric regime of Al Khalifa and Ali Abdullah Saleh once again attracted the attention of conscientious observers in the international community. </div><div class="story">According to official figures released by the "Bahrain Center for Human Rights" website, so far 44 Bahraini citizens were killed at the hands of the mercenaries of Al Khalifa regime. </div><div class="story">The Bahraini martyrs include the 6-year-old Mohammed Farhan, 14-year-old Ali Jawad Alshaikh and 15-year-old Sayed Ahmad Saeed Shams. The Bahraini organization has reported that many of these martyrs were killed while in custody. The Center has also published documents indicating that more than 1,500 Bahrainis including about 100 women were incarcerated since the eruption of turmoil in the Persian Gulf country on February 14, 2011 and that more that 90 journalists face life threat.</div><div class="story">It's also said that the Bahraini government has blocked the citizens' access to more than 1000 opposition websites which are mainly used to organize and plan protests and mass demonstrations.</div><table align="left"><tbody>
<tr><td><img src="http://www.salem-news.com/gphotos/1322098066.jpg" /><div class="caption"><b>Bahraini Shi'ites wave a Bahrain flag as they attend a funeral, March <br />
2011. Photograph: AFP/Getty Images. Courtesy: <a href="http://www.newstatesman.com/blogs/the-staggers/2011/06/libel-law-case-sue-bahrain"><b>The New Statesman</b></a></b></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="story">The Bahraini regime commits all of these aggressive and brutal actions with the direct involvement of the Saudi Arabia and the implicit support and backing of NATO and the United States. The author of the "Hidden Harmonies China" blog in a March 14, 2011 post referred to the abuses of human rights in Bahrain with the flagrant, duplicitous support of the White House: "the Entry of Saudi security forces to crack down on the protesters with deadly force is a complication for U.S. policies, to say the least, since U.S. is reluctant to criticize its oil ally dictators in the region."</div><div class="story">He also called Bahrain the "Las Vegas" of the Middle East, host to the U.S. 5th Fleet and a haunt for the rich Saudis who are forbidden by Islamic laws at home from indulging in alcohol and other immoral enjoyments, "but who often vacation in Bahrain for these reasons."</div><div class="story">Bahraini citizens have uploaded several video files on the internet, showing the cruel and ruthless torturing and persecuting of the protesters by the Al Khalifa lackeys. These videos depict the Bahraini forces using tear gas and rubber bullets to disperse protesters and killing many of them straight away. Some of these videos also show the Saudi and Bahraini cars nonchalantly running over Bahraini children and women, killing them at once.</div><div class="story">The U.S.-Saudi project of crackdown on the Bahraini people was also empowered by many of the European cronies of Washington. In July 2011, Germany sold a set of 200 62-ton Leopard tanks to Saudi Arabia which sparked a huge controversy among the German parliamentarians and anti-war activists. According to the Daily Telegraph, Wolfgang Gerhardt, former leader of the Free Democrats, the junior collation member to Chancellor Angela Merkel's Christian Democrats, said it was "unacceptable" the deal went through without the knowledge of his party's MPs. However, the agreement which was worth around USD 1,252 million was concluded and the Saudi government dispatched many of these newly-bought tanks to Bahrain to accelerate and facilitate the bloody clampdown on the protesters.</div><table align="right"><tbody>
<tr><td><img src="http://www.salem-news.com/gphotos/1322098442.jpg" /><div class="caption"><b>Humanitarian situation in Yemen</b></div></td></tr>
</tbody></table><div class="story">The situation in Yemen, however, is far more deplorable and appalling. Allvoices.com has reported that as of September 25, 1,870 Yemenis were killed in the revolution and the majority of the martyrs were unarmed civilians taking part in anti-government demonstrations.</div><div class="story">The Yemeni dictator who has remained defiant in the face of frequent calls by the tribal leaders, opposition groups and demonstrators to step down and give up power has turned his country into a bloodbath and made the Yemeni uprising the longest, most devastative revolution in the revolutionary wave of protests in the Middle East. The protests in Yemen started on February 3, 2011 and have continued so far. The only reaction of the international community to the brutality in Yemen was an indecisive and faltering resolution by the UNSC which called for "an end to violence" and asked President Ali Abdullah Saleh to accept a peace deal brokered by the Persian Gulf Cooperation Council. However, Abdullah Saleh who is tacitly supported by the U.S., kept up with the brutalities and according to Yemen Times, 94 protesters were killed after the Security Council adopted the resolution 2014.</div><div class="story">In a report published on Yemen Times on November 17, it was revealed that "ninety-four Yemenis were killed and over 800 injured since UN Resolution 2014 was issued on October 21."</div><div class="story">"Tentative reports show that over the last three weeks in Yemen, 124 homes, seven mosques, six public institutions including one hospital, two community wells, and 17 vehicles were effectively destroyed," Yemen Times reported.</div><div class="story">In the days leading to the detainment and death of Moammar Gaddafi, the Western mainstream media were only talking about the Libyan civil war, and the reason was clear: NATO had secured a UNSC resolution to enact a no-fly zone over Libya and it was in the interests of the U.S. and its European partners to give coverage to the tumultuous situation in the North African country. However, the reports and news regarding the carnage in Bahrain and Yemen were predominantly shunned and boycotted, simply because these two despotic regimes were close allies of the U.S. in the Middle East.</div><div class="story">In a report published on "Independent Australia," Zaid Jiani alluded to the violent crackdown on the protesters in Bahrain and Yemen and posed the question that "is the media downplaying these events because the two dictatorships are firm allies of the West?"</div><div class="story">"A Think Progress analysis of press coverage by the three major U.S. cable news networks -CNN, MSNBC, and Fox News - from March 14 to March 18 finds that Bahrain received only slightly more than ten percent as many mentions as Libya and that Yemen received only six percent as many mentions as Libya."</div><div class="story">Now what concerns the independent thinkers, scholars, university professors, journalists and peace activists is that Syria has become the target of international pressure, simply because it has strong ties with Iran and resistant groups in Lebanon and Palestine, while the reactionary regimes of Bahrain and Yemen are getting away with the felonies which they commit by the virtue of their alliance with the United States.</div><div class="story">Arab League has vindictively suspended the participation of Syria while it has taken no practical step to normalize the situation in the turbulent and chaotic Yemen and Bahrain in which innocent people are being killed on a daily basis by their tyrannical rulers and their loyalists.</div><div class="story">All that can be said is that the performance of the Arab League in neglecting the situation in Yemen and Bahrain and exaggerating the unrest in Syria which is mainly caused by the foreign intervention and the West's indifference toward the plight of the suppressed nations in Yemen and Bahrain is an all-out hypocrisy and a clear, undeniable exercise of double standards. Who can really devise a clear-cut solution for this unsolvable dilemma?</div><br />
http://www.salem-news.com/articles/november232011/political-hypocrisy-kz.php</div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-40147270946421585462011-11-24T05:14:00.000-08:002011-11-24T05:14:42.591-08:00Avicenna [Ibn Sina] The Great Philosopher from Islam<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.salem-news.com/stimg/august072010/avicenna.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.salem-news.com/stimg/august072010/avicenna.jpg" /></a></div><br />
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Abu ‘Ali al-Husayn ibn Sina is better known in Europe by the Latinized name “Avicenna.” He is probably the most significant philosopher in the Islamic tradition and arguably the most influential philosopher of the pre-modern era. Born in Afshana near Bukhara in Central Asia in about 980, he is best known as a polymath, as a physician whose major work the <em>Canon</em> (<em>al-Qanun fi’l-Tibb</em>) continued to be taught as a medical textbook in Europe and in the Islamic world until the early modern period, and as a philosopher whose major <em>summa</em> the <em>Cure</em> (<em>al-Shifa’</em>) had a decisive impact upon European scholasticism and especially upon <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> (d. 1274).Primarily a metaphysical philosopher of being who was concerned with understanding the self’s existence in this world in relation to its contingency, Ibn Sina’s philosophy is an attempt to construct a coherent and comprehensive system that accords with the religious exigencies of Muslim culture. As such, he may be considered to be the first major Islamic philosopher. The philosophical space that he articulates for God as the Necessary Existence lays the foundation for his theories of the soul, intellect and cosmos. Furthermore, he articulated a development in the philosophical enterprise in classical Islam away from the apologetic concerns for establishing the relationship between religion and philosophy towards an attempt to make philosophical sense of key religious doctrines and even analyse and interpret the Qur’an. Recent studies have attempted to locate him within the <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl">Aristotelian</a> and <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/neoplato">Neoplatonic</a> traditions. His relationship with the latter is ambivalent: although accepting some keys aspects such as an emanationist cosmology, he rejected Neoplatonic epistemology and the theory of the pre-existent soul. However, his metaphysics owes much to the “Amonnian” synthesis of the later commentators on Aristotle and discussions in legal theory and <em>kalam</em> on meaning, signification and being. Apart from philosophy, Avicenna’s other contributions lie in the fields of medicine, the natural sciences, musical theory, and mathematics. In the Islamic sciences (<em>‘ulum</em>), he wrote a series of short commentaries on selected Qur’anic verses and chapters that reveal a trained philosopher’s hermeneutical method and attempt to come to terms with revelation. He also wrote some literary allegories about whose philosophical value recent scholarship is vehemently at odds.<br />
His influence in medieval Europe spread through the translations of his works first undertaken in Spain. In the Islamic world, his impact was immediate and led to what Michot has called “<em>la pandémie avicennienne.”</em> When al-Ghazali led the theological attack upon the heresies of the philosophers, he singled out Avicenna, and a generation later when the <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/shahras">Shahrastani </a> gave an account of the doctrines of the philosophers of Islam, he relied upon the work of Avicenna, whose metaphysics he later attempted to refute in his <em>Struggling against the Philosophers (Musari‘at al-falasifa)</em>. Avicennan metaphysics became the foundation for discussions of Islamic philosophy and philosophical theology. In the early modern period in Iran, his metaphysical positions began to be displayed by a creative modification that they underwent due to the thinkers of the school of Isfahan, in particular Mulla Sadra (d. 1641).<br />
<h3>Table of Contents</h3><ol><li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H1"> Life and Times </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H2"> Works </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H3"> <em>Avicenna Latinus</em> </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H4"> Logic </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H5"> Ontology </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H6"> Epistemology </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H6">Psychology </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H8"> Mysticism and Oriental Philosophy </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H9"> The Avicennan Tradition and His Legacy </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#H10"> References and Further Reading </a> <ol><li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10a">The Latin Avicenna (mainly sections of al-Shifa’)</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10b">Studies in Avicenna Latinus</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10c">Selected Works of Avicenna Available in European Language Translation</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10d">General Introductions to Avicenna and His Thought</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10e">Collections and Bibliographies</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10f">Interpretations</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10g">Avicenna’s Oriental Philosophy</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10h">Metaphysics</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10i">On Pyschology</a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/#SH10j">Existence-Essence<br />
</a></li>
</ol></li>
</ol><h2><a href="" name="H1"></a> 1. Life and Times</h2><span style="display: table; font-size: 22px;"><strong></strong></span>Sources on his life range from his autobiography, written at the behest of his disciple ‘Abd al-Wahid Juzjani, his private correspondence, including the collection of philosophical epistles exchanged with his disciples and known as <em>al-Mubahathat</em> (<em>The Discussions</em>), to legends and doxographical views embedded in the ‘histories of philosophy’ of medieval Islam such as Ibn al-Qifti’s <em>Ta’rikh al-hukama (History of the Philosophers)</em> and Zahir al-Din Bayhaqi’s <em>Tatimmat Siwan al-hikma</em>. However, much of this material ought to be carefully examined and critically evaluated. Gutas has argued that the autobiography is a literary device to represent Avicenna as a philosopher who acquired knowledge of all the philosophical sciences through study and intuition (<em>al-hads</em>), a cornerstone of his epistemological theory. Thus the autobiography is an attempt to demonstrate that humans can achieve the highest knowledge through intuition. The text is a key to understanding Avicenna’s view of philosophy: we are told that he only understood the purpose of Aristotle’s <em>Metaphysics</em> after reading al-Farabi’s short treatise on it, and that often when he failed to understand a problem or solve the syllogism, he would resort to prayer in the mosque (and drinking wine at times) to receive the inspiration to understand – the doctrine of intuition. We will return to his epistemology later but first what can we say about his life?<br />
Avicenna was born in around 980 in Afshana, a village near Bukhara in Transoxiana. His father, who may have been Ismaili, was a local Samanid governor. At an early age, his family moved to Bukhara where he studied Hanafi jurisprudence (<em>fiqh</em>) with Isma‘il Zahid (d. 1012) and medicine with a number of teachers. This training and the excellent library of the physicians at the Samanid court assisted Avicenna in his philosophical self-education. Thus, he claimed to have mastered all the sciences by the age of 18 and entered into the service of the Samanid court of Nuh ibn Mansur (r. 976-997) as a physician. After the death of his father, it seems that he was also given an administrative post. Around the turn of the millennium, he moved to Gurganj in Khwarazm, partly no doubt to the eclipse of Samanid rule after the Qarakhanids took Bukhara in 999. He then left again ‘through necessity’ in 1012 for Jurjan in Khurasan to the south in search no doubt for a patron. There he first met his disciple and scribe Juzjani. After a year, he entered Buyid service as a physician, first with Majd al-Dawla in Rayy and then in 1015 in Hamadan where he became vizier of Shams al-Dawla. After the death of the later in 1021, he once again sought a patron and became the vizier of the Kakuyid ‘Ala’ al-Dawla for whom he wrote an important Persian summa of philosophy, the <em>Danishnama-yi ‘Ala’i (The Book of Knowledge for ‘Ala’ al-Dawla)</em>. Based in Isfahan, he was widely recognized as a philosopher and physician and often accompanied his patron on campaign. It was during one of these to Hamadan in 1037 that he died of colic. An arrogant thinker who did not suffer fools, he was fond of his slave-girls and wine, facts which were ammunition for his later detractors.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H2"></a> 2. Works</h2>Avicenna wrote his two earliest works in Bukhara under the influence of al-Farabi. The first, a <em>Compendium on the Soul </em>(<em>Maqala fi’l-nafs</em>), is a short treatise dedicated to the Samanid ruler that establishes the incorporeality of the rational soul or intellect without resorting to Neoplatonic insistence upon its pre-existence. The second is his first major work on metaphysics, <em>Philosophy for the Prosodist (al-Hikma al-‘Arudiya)</em> penned for a local scholar and his first systematic attempt at Aristotelian philosophy.<br />
He later wrote three ‘encyclopaedias’encyclopedias of philosophy. The first of these is <em>al-Shifa’</em> <em>(The Cure)</em>, a work modelled on the corpus of the philosopher, namely. Aristotle, that covers the natural sciences, logic, mathematics, metaphysics and theology. It was this work that through its Latin translation had a considerable impact on scholasticism. It was solicited by Juzjani and his other students in Hamadan in 1016 and although he lost parts of it on a military campaign, he completed it in Isfahan by 1027. The other two encyclopaedias were written later for his patron the Buyid prince ‘Ala’ al-Dawla in Isfahan. The first, in Persian rather than Arabic is entitled <em>Danishnama-yi ‘Ala’i</em> <em>(The Book of Knowledge for ‘Ala’ al-Dawla)</em> and is an introductory text designed for the layman. It closely follows his own Arabic epitome of <em>The Cure</em>, namely <em>al-Najat (The Salvation)</em>. <em>The Book of Knowledge</em> was the basis of al-Ghazali’s later Arabic work <em>Maqasid al-falasifa (Goals of the Philosophers)</em>. The second, whose dating and interpretation have inspired debates for centuries, is <em>al-Isharat wa’l-Tanbihat</em> <em>(Pointers and Reminders)</em>, a work that does not present completed proofs for arguments and reflects his mature thinking on a variety of logical and metaphysical issues. According to Gutas it was written in Isfahan in the early 1030s; according to Michot, it dates from an earlier period in Hamadan and possibly Rayy. A further work entitled <em>al-Insaf</em> <em>(The Judgement) </em>which purports to represent a philosophical position that is radical and transcends AristotelianisingAristotle’s Neoplatonism is unfortunately not extant, and debates about its contents are rather like the arguments that one encounters concerning Plato’s esoteric or unwritten doctrines. One further work that has inspired much debate is <em>The Easterners (al-Mashriqiyun)</em> or <em>The Eastern Philosophy (al-Hikma al-Mashriqiya)</em> which he wrote at the end of the 1020s and is mostly lost.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H3"></a> 3. <em>Avicenna</em> <em>Latinus</em></h2>Avicenna’s major work, <em>The Cure</em>, was translated into Latin in 12th and 13th century Spain (Toledo and Burgos) and, although it was controversial, it had an important impact and raised controversies inin medieval scholastic philosophy. In certain cases the Latin manuscripts of the text predate the extant Arabic ones and ought to be considered more authoritative. The main significance of the Latin corpus lies in the interpretation for Avicennism andAvicennism, in particular forregarding his doctrines on the nature of the soul and his famous existence-essence distinction (more about that below) andbelow), along with the debates and censure that they raised in scholastic Europe, in particular in ParisEurope. This was particularly the case in Paris, where Avicennism waslater proscribed in 1210. However, the influence of his psychology and theory of knowledge upon William of Auvergne and Albertus Magnus have been noted. More significant is the impact of his metaphysics upon the work and thought of Thomas Aquinas. His other major work to be translated into Latin was his medical treatise the <em>Canon</em>, which remained a text-book into the early modern period and was studied in centrescenters of medical learning such as Padua.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H4"></a> 4. Logic</h2>Logic is a critical aspect of, and propaedeutic to, Avicennan philosophy. His logical works follow the curriculum of late Neoplatonism and comprise nine books, beginning with his version of Porphyry’s <em>Isagoge</em> followed by his understanding and modification of the Aristotelian <em>Organon</em>, which included the <em>Poetics</em> and the <em>Rhetoric</em>. On the age-old debate whether logic is an instrument of philosophy (Peripatetic view) or a part of philosophy (Stoic view), he argues that such a debate is futile and meaningless.<br />
His views on logic represent a significant metaphysical approach, and it could be argued generally that metaphysical concerns lead Avicenna’s arguments in a range of philosophical and non-philosophical subjects. For example, he argues in <em>The Cure</em> that both logic and metaphysics share a concern with the study of secondary intelligibles (<em>ma‘qulat thaniya</em>), abstract concepts such as existence and time that are derived from primary concepts such as humanity and animality. Logic is the standard by which concepts—or the mental “existence” that corresponds to things that occur in extra-mental reality—can be judged and hence has both implications for what exists outside of the mind and how one may articulate those concepts through language. More importantly, logic is a key instrument and standard for judging the validity of arguments and hence acquiring knowledge. Salvation depends on the purity of the soul and in particular the intellect that is trained and perfected through knowledge. Of particular significance for later debates and refutations is his notion that knowledge depends on the inquiry of essential definitions (<em>hadd</em>) through syllogistic reasoning. The problem of course arises when one tries to make sense of an essential definition in a real, particular world, and when one’s attempts to complete the syllogism by striking on the middle term is foiled because one’s ‘intuition’ fails to grasp the middle term.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H5"></a> 5. Ontology</h2>From al-Farabi, Avicenna inherited the Neoplatonic emanationist scheme of existence. Contrary to the classical Muslim theologians, he rejected creation<em> ex nihilo</em> and argued that cosmos has no beginning but is a natural logical product of the divine One. The super-abundant, pure Good that is the One cannot fail to produce an ordered and good cosmos that does not succeed him in time. The cosmos succeeds God merely in logical order and in existence.<br />
Consequently, Avicenna is well known as the author of one an important and influential proof for the existence of God. This proof is a good example of a philosopher’s intellect being deployed for a theological purpose, as was common in medieval philosophy. The argument runs as follows: There is existence, or rather our phenomenal experience of the world confirms that things exist, and that their existence is non-necessary because we notice that things come into existence and pass out of it. Contingent existence cannot arise unless it is made necessary by a cause. A causal chain in reality must culminate in one un-caused cause because one cannot posit an actual infinite regress of causes (a basic axiom of Aristotelian science). Therefore, the chain of contingent existents must culminate in and find its causal principle in a sole, self-subsistent existent that is Necessary. This, of course, is the same as the God of religion.<br />
An important corollary of this argument is Avicenna’s famous distinction between existence and essence in contingents, between the fact that something exists and what it is. It is a distinction that is arguably latent in Aristotle although the roots of Avicenna’s doctrine are best understood in classical Islamic theology or <em>kalam</em>. Avicenna’s theory of essence posits three modalities: essences can exist in the external world associated with qualities and features particular to that reality; they can exist in the mind as concepts associated with qualities in mental existence; and they can exist in themselves devoid of any mode of existence. This final mode of essence is quite distinct from existence. Essences are thus existentially neutral in themselves. Existents in this world exist as something, whether human, animal or inanimate object; they are ‘dressed’ in the form of some essence that is a bundle of properties that describes them as composites. God on the other hand is absolutely simple, and cannot be divided into a bundle of distinct ontological properties that would violate his unity. Contingents, as a mark of their contingency, are conceptual and ontological composites both at the first level of existence and essence and at the second level of properties. Contingent things in this world come to be as mentally distinct composites of existence and essence bestowed by the Necessary.<br />
This proof from contingency is also sometimes termed “radical contingency.” Later arguments raged concerning whether the distinction was mental or real, whether the proof is ontological or cosmological. The clearest problem with Avicenna’s proofs lies in the famous Kantian objection to ontological arguments: is existence meaningful in itself? Further, Cantor’s solution to the problem of infinity may also be seen as a setback to the argument from the impossibility of actual infinites.<br />
Avicenna’s metaphysics is generally expressed in Aristotelian terms. The quest to understand being <em>qua</em> being subsumes the philosophical notion of God. Indeed, as we have seen divine existence is a cornerstone of his metaphysics. Divine existence bestows existence and hence meaning and value upon all that exists. Two questions that were current were resolved through his theory of existence. First, theologians such as al-Ash‘ari and his followers were adamant in denying the possibility of secondary causality; for them, God was the sole agent and actor in all that unfolded. Avicenna’s metaphysics, although being highly deterministic because of his view of radical contingency, still insists of the importance of human and other secondary causality. Second, the age-old problem was discussed: if God is good, how can evil exist? Divine providence ensures that the world is the best of all possible worlds, arranged in the rational order that one would expect of a creator akin to the demiurge of the <em>Timaeus</em>. But while this does not deny the existence of evil in this world of generation and corruption, some universal evil does not exist because of the famous Neoplatonic definition of evil as the absence of good. Particular evils in this world are accidental consequences of good. Although this deals with the problem of natural evils, the problem of moral evils and particularly ‘horrendous’ evils remains.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H6"></a> 6. Epistemology</h2>The second most influential idea of Avicenna is his theory of the knowledge. The human intellect at birth is rather like a <em>tabula rasa</em>, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know. Knowledge is attained through empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts. It is developed through a syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts. The intellect itself possesses levels of development from the material intellect (<em>al-‘aql al-hayulani</em>), that potentiality that can acquire knowledge to the active intellect (<em>al-‘aql al-fa‘il</em>), the state of the human intellect at conjunction with the perfect source of knowledge.<br />
But the question arises: how can we verify if a proposition is true? How do we know that an experience of ours is veridical? There are two methods to achieve this. First, there are the standards of formal inference of arguments —Is the argument logically sound? Second, and most importantly, there is a transcendent intellect in which all the essences of things and all knowledge resides. This intellect, known as the Active Intellect, illuminates the human intellect through conjunction and bestows upon the human intellect true knowledge of things. Conjunction, however, is episodic and only occurs to human intellects that have become adequately trained and thereby actualized. The active intellect also intervenes in the assessment of sound inferences through Avicenna’s theory of intuition. A syllogistic inference draws a conclusion from two prepositional premises through their connection or their middle term. It is sometimes rather difficult to see what the middle term is; thus when someone reflecting upon an inferential problem suddenly hits upon the middle term, and thus understands the correct result, she has been helped through intuition (<em>hads</em>) inspired by the active intellect. There are various objections that can be raised against this theory, especially because it is predicated upon a cosmology widely refuted in the post-Copernican world.<br />
One of the most problematic implications of Avicennan epistemology relates to God’s knowledge. The divine is pure, simple and immaterial and hence cannot have a direct epistemic relation with the particular thing to be known. Thus Avicenna concluded while God knows what unfolds in this world, he knows things in a ‘universal manner’ through the universal qualities of things. God only knows kinds of existents and not individuals. This resulted in the famous condemnation by al-Ghazali who said that Avicenna’s theory amounts to a heretical denial of God’s knowledge of particulars. particulars. <a href="" name="H7"></a><br />
<h2>7. Psychology</h2>Avicenna’s epistemology is predicated upon a theory of soul that is independent of the body and capable of abstraction. This proof for the self in many ways prefigures by 600 years the Cartesian <em>cogito</em> and the modern philosophical notion of the self. It demonstrates the Aristotelian base and Neoplatonic structure of his psychology. This is the so-called ‘flying man’ argument or thought experiment found at the beginning of his <em>Fi’-Nafs/De Anima</em> (Treatise on the Soul). If a person were created in a perfect state, but blind and suspended in the air but unable to perceive anything through his senses, would he be able to affirm the existence of his self? Suspended in such a state, he cannot affirm the existence of his body because he is not empirically aware of it, thus the argument may be seen as affirming the independence of the soul from the body, a form of dualism. But in that state he cannot doubt that his self exists because there is a subject that is thinking, thus the argument can be seen as an affirmation of the self-awareness of the soul and its substantiality. This argument does raise an objection, which may also be levelled at Descartes: how do we know that the knowing subject is the self?<br />
This rational self possesses faculties or senses in a theory that begins with Aristotle and develops through Neoplatonism. The first sense is common sense (<em>al-hiss al-mushtarak</em>) which fuses information from the physical senses into an epistemic object. The second sense is imagination (<em>al-khayal</em>) which processes the image of the perceived epistemic object. The third sense is the imaginative faculty (<em>al-mutakhayyila</em>) which combines images in memory, separates them and produces new images. The fourth sense is estimation or prehension (<em>wahm</em>) that translates the perceived image into its significance. The classic example for this innovative sense is that of the sheep perceiving the wolf and understanding the implicit danger. The final sense is where the ideas produced are stored and analyzed and ascribed meanings based upon the production of the imaginative faculty and estimation. Different faculties do not compromise the singular integrity of the rational soul. They merely provide an explanation for the process of intellection.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H8"></a> 8. Mysticism and Oriental Philosophy</h2>Was Avicenna a mystic? Some of his interpreters in Iran have answered in the positive, citing the lost work <em>The Easterners</em> that on the face of it has a superficial similarity to the notion of Ishraqi or Illuminationist, intuitive philosophy expounded by Suhrawardi (d. 1191) and the final section of <em>Pointers</em> that deal with the terminology of mysticism and Sufism. The question does not directly impinge on his philosophy so much since <em>The Easterners </em>is mostly non-extant. But it is an argument relating to ideology and the ways in which modern commentators and scholars wish to study Islamic philosophy as a purely rational form of inquiry or as a supra-rational method of understanding reality. Gutas has been most vehement in his denial of any mysticism in Avicenna. For him, Avicennism is rooted in the rationalism of the Aristotelian tradition. Intuition does not entail mystical disclosure but is a mental act of conjunction with the active intellect. The notion of intuition is located itself by Gutas in Aristotle’s <em>Posterior Analytics </em>89b10-11. While some of the mystical commentators of Avicenna have relied upon his pseudo-epigraphy (such as some sort of Persian Sufi treatises and the <em>Mi‘rajnama</em>), one ought not to throw the baby out with the bath water. The last sections of <em>Pointers</em> are significant evidence of Avicenna’s acceptance of some key epistemological possibilities that are present in mystical knowledge such as the possibility of non-discursive reason and simple knowledge. Although one can categorically deny that he was a Sufi (and indeed in his time the institutions of Sufism were not as established as they were a century later) and even raise questions about his adherence to some form of mysticism, it would be foolish to deny that he flirts with the possibilities of mystical knowledge in some of his later authentic works.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H9"></a> 9. The Avicennan Tradition and His Legacy</h2>Avicenna’s major achievement was to propound a philosophically defensive system rooted in the theological fact of Islam, and its success can be gauged by the recourse to Avicennan ideas found in the subsequent history of philosophical theology in Islam. In the Latin West, his metaphysics and theory of the soul had a profound influence on scholastic arguments, and as in the Islamic East, was the basis for considerable debate and argument. Just two generations after him, al-Ghazali (d. 1111) and al-Shahrastani (d. 1153) in their attacks testify to the fact that no serious Muslim thinker could ignore him. They regarded Avicenna as the principal representative of philosophy in Islam. In the later Iranian tradition, Avicenna’s thought was critically distilled with mystical insight, and he became known as a mystical thinker, a view much disputed in more recent scholarship. Nevertheless the major works of Avicenna, <em>The Cure</em> and <em>Pointers,</em> became the basis for the philosophical curriculum in the <em>madrasa</em>. Numerous commentaries, glosses and super-glosses were composed on them and continued to be produced into the 20th century. While our current views on cosmology, the nature of the self, and knowledge raise distinct problems for Avicennan ideas, they do not address the important issue of why his thought remained so influential for such a long period of time. In In recent times, Avicenna has been attacked by some contemporary Arab Muslim thinkers in search of a new rationalism within Arab culture, one that champions Averroes against Avicenna.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H10"></a> 10. References and Further Reading</h2><h3> <a href="" name="SH10a"></a> a. The Latin Avicenna (mainly sections of al-Shifa’)</h3><ul class="hang"><li><em>Liber de anima seu sextus de naturalibus I-III</em>. ed. Simone van Riet, Leiden, 1972.</li>
<li><em>Liber de philosophia prima sive scientia divina I-IV</em>. ed. Simone van Riet, Leidin, 1977.</li>
<li><em>Liber de pilosophia prima sive scientia divina V-X</em>. ed. Simone van Riet, Leiden, 1980.</li>
<li><em>Liber primus naturalium: Tractatus primus de causis et principiis naturalium</em>. ed. Simone van Riet, Leiden, 1992.</li>
<li><em>Liber quartus naturalium de actionibus et passionibus qualitatum primarum</em>. ed. Simone van Riet, Leiden, 1989.</li>
</ul><h3> <a href="" name="SH10b"></a>b. Studies in Avicenna Latinus</h3><ul class="hang"><li>(eds), <em>Islam and the Italian Renaissance</em>. eds. Charles Burnett and Anna Contadini. Warburg Institute, 1999.</li>
<li>N. G. Siraisi, <em>Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500</em>, Princeton, 1987.</li>
<li>Dag Hasse, <em>Avicenna’s De Anima in the Latin West</em>, London, 2000. <ul class="hang"><li>A study of the impact of Avicennan psychology upon the scholastics focusing on five key issues</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><h3> <a href="" name="SH10c"></a> c. Selected Works of Avicenna Available in European Language Translation</h3><ul class="hang"><li><em>Epistola sulla vita future (Risalat al-Adhawiyya fi’l-ma’ad)</em>, tr. F. Luchetta, Padua, 1969. <ul class="hang"><li>Compare it with this useful and critical commentary by the theologian Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328) – Yahya Michot, ‘A Mamluk theologian’s commentary on Avicenna’s <em>Risala Adhawiyya</em>’, <em>Journal of Islamic Studies</em> 14 (2003), 149-203, 309-63.</li>
</ul></li>
<li><em>The Life of Ibn Sina</em>, tr. William Gohlman, Albany, 1974.</li>
<li><em>Avicenna’s De Anima (Fi’l-Nafs)</em>, tr. F. Rahman, London, 1954.</li>
<li><em>Livre de directives et remarques (al-Isharat wa’l-Tanbihat)</em>, tr. Anne-Marie Goichon, 2 vols., Paris, 1951.</li>
<li><em>Remarks and Admonitions Part One: Logic (al-Isharat wa’l-Tanbihat: mantiq)</em>, tr. Shams Inati, Toronto, 1984.</li>
<li><em>La Métaphysique du </em>Shifa’ I-IV et V-X, tr. G. Anawati, Paris, 1978-86.</li>
<li><em>Le livre de science (Danishnama-yi ‘Ala’i) I: Logique, Métaphysique II: science naturelle, mathématique</em>, trs. M. Achena and Henri Massé, Paris, 1986.</li>
<li><em> Ibn Sina on Mysticism (al-Isharat wa’l-Tanbihat namat IX)</em>, tr. Shams Inati, London, 1998.</li>
<li><em>The Metaphysica of Avicenna (Ilahiyyat-i Danishnama-yi ‘Ala’i)</em>, tr. Parviz Morewedge, New York, 1972; rpt., Binghamton, 2003.</li>
<li><em>Lettre au Vizier Abu Sa’d</em>, ed./tr. Yahya Michot, Paris, 2000.</li>
<li><em>The Metaphysics of Avicenna (al-Ilahiyyat min Kitab al-Shifa’)</em>, ed./tr. Michael Marmura, Provo, 2004.</li>
</ul><h3> <a href="" name="SH10d"></a>d. General Introductions to Avicenna and His Thought</h3><ul class="hang"><li>Cruz Hernández, Miguel. <em>La vida de Avicena</em>. Salamanca, 1997. <ul class="hang"><li>A short and accessible intellectual biography written by perhaps the foremost Spanish historian of Islamic philosophy.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Goichon, Anne-Marie. <em>Lexique de la langue philosophique d’Avicenne</em>. Paris, 1938. <ul class="hang"><li>A pioneering work which remains a highly useful research tool.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Goodman, Lenn. <em>Avicenna</em>. London, 1992. <ul class="hang"><li>Although an attempt by a contemporary philosopher to come to grips with the enduring contributions of Avicenna to philosophy, it suffers from some serious textual misreadings.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Gutas, Dimitri. <em>Avicenna and the Aristotelian Tradition</em>. Leiden/Boston, 1988. <ul class="hang"><li>A solid work of scholarship that discusses Avicenna’s corpus and thought within a paradigm of Islamic Aristotelianism.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Nasr, Sayyed Hossein. <em>Three Muslim Sages</em>. Cambridge, 1966. <ul class="hang"><li>An old and contentious presentation of Avicenna as a polymath rooted in the mystical experience of God.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Sebti, Miriam. <em>Avicenne</em>. Paris, 2003. <ul class="hang"><li>An interpretation from a continental philosophical approach.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Street, Tony. <em>Avicenna</em>. Cambridge, 2005. <ul class="hang"><li>A solid presentation of the key ideas based on the most up-to-date research.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><h3><a href="" name="SH10e"></a>e. Collections and Bibliographies</h3><ul class="hang"><li>Special Issue of <em>Documenti e studi sulla tradizione filosofica medievale</em>. Padua, 8 (1997) on Avicenna.</li>
<li>Special Issue of <em>Arabic Sciences and Philosophy</em>. Cambridge, 10 (2000) on Avicenna.</li>
<li>Anawati, G. C. <em>Essai de bibliographie avicennienne</em>. Cairo, 1950.</li>
<li>Various Authors, ‘Avicenna’, <em>Encyclopaedia Iranica</em>. New York, II, 66-110.</li>
<li>Janssens, Jules. <em>Bibliography of Works on Ibn </em>Sina, 2 vols. Leiden, 1991-99.</li>
<li>Janssens, Jules and Daniel de Smet (ed). <em>Avicenna and His Heritage</em>. Leuven, 2001. <ul class="hang"><li>Proceedings from a 1999 conference that brought together specialists on the Arabic and the Latin Avicenna and their legacies.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Rashed, Roshdi and Jean Jolivet (eds), <em>Etudes sur Avicenne</em>, Paris, 1984. <ul class="hang"><li> An excellent collection that includes insightful pieces on Avicennan physics and metaphysics.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>David Reisman and Ahmed al-Rahim (eds), <em>Before and After Avicenna</em>, Leiden/Boston, 2003. <ul class="hang"><li>The proceedings of the First Conference of the Avicenna Research Group (based at Yale).</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Robert Wisnovsky (ed), <em>Aspects of Avicenna (Princeton Papers: Interdisciplinary Journal of Middle East Studies, 9)</em>, Princeton, 2001. <ul class="hang"><li>Includes two good pieces on Avicennan psychology.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><h3> <a href="" name="SH10f"></a>f. Interpretations</h3><ul class="hang"><li>Arberry, Arthur J. <em>Avicenna on Theology</em>. London, 1954. <ul class="hang"><li>Includes translations of texts and raises the interesting question of what is ‘Islamic’ about Avicenna’s ‘Islamic philosophy’.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Corbin, Henry. <em>Avicenna and the Visionary Recital</em>, Princeton, 1961. <ul class="hang"><li>An influential and controversial interpretation of Avicenna through the lens of the later Iranian tradition portraying him as a mystic.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Gardet, Louis. <em>La pensée religieuse d’Avicenne</em>, Paris, 1951.</li>
<li>Heath, Peter. <em>Allegory and Philosophy in Avicenna</em>, Philadelphia, 1992. <ul class="hang"><li>An interesting approach to allegory that draws on Corbin and suffers from the assumption that the famous pseudo-Avicennan work the <em>Mi’rajnama</em> is authentic.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Lüling, G. ‘Die anderer Avicenna’, <em>Zeitschrift der deutschen MorganländischenGesellschaft</em> Suppl III.1 (1977), 496-513.</li>
<li>Marmura, Michael. ‘Avicenna and the kalam’, <em>Zeitschrift für arabisch-islamisch Wissenschaft (Frankfurt)</em> 7 (1991-2), 172-206. <ul class="hang"><li>Considers Avicenna’s debt to the metaphysics of <em>kalam</em>.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Marmura, Michael. ‘Plotting the course of Avicenna’s thought’, <em>Journal of the American Oriental Society</em> 111 (1991), 333-42. <ul class="hang"><li> A critical assessment of Gutas’s 1988 work.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Michot, Yahya. ‘La pandémie avicennienne’, <em>Arabica (Paris)</em> 40 (1993), 287-344. <ul class="hang"><li>On the widespread hegemony of Avicennan philosophy in Islamic thought from the 12th Century.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Thom, Paul. <em>Medieval Modal Systems</em>, London, 2004. <ul class="hang"><li>The best study of Avicenna’s modal logic and his contributions to the field.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><h3> <a href="" name="SH10g"></a>g. Avicenna’s Oriental Philosophy</h3><ul class="hang"><li>Cruz Hernández, Miguel. ‘El problema de la “auténtica” filosofía de Avicena’, <em>Revista de Filosofía</em> 5 (1992), 235-56.</li>
<li>Gutas, Dimitri. ‘Avicenna’s Eastern (“Oriental”) Philosophy’, <em>Arabic Sciences and Philosophy</em> 10 (2000), 159-80.</li>
<li>Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. ‘Ibn Sina’s Oriental Philosophy’, in S. H. Nasr and Oliver Leaman (eds), <em>History of Islamic Philosophy</em>, London/New York, 1996, I, 247-51. <ul class="hang"><li>A classic restatement of Nasr’s mystical understanding of Avicenna.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Pines, Shlomo. ‘La philosophie orientale d’Avicenne’, in <em>The Collected Works of Shlomo Pines Volume III</em>, Jerusalem, 1996, 301-33. <ul class="hang"><li>Interprets ‘oriental’ to signify an Eastern alternative Peripatetism.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><h3> <a href="" name="SH10h"></a>h. Metaphysics</h3><ul class="hang"><li>Robert Wisnovsky, <em>Avicenna’s Metaphysics in Context</em>, London, 2003. <ul class="hang"><li>An excellent study that locates the origins of Avicennan thought in what he calls the ‘Ammonian synthesis’ in Late Antiquity and then explains the development of Avicennan metaphysics.</li>
</ul></li>
</ul><h3> <a href="" name="SH10i"></a>i. On Psychology</h3><ul class="hang"><li>Helmut Gätje, <em>Studien zur Überlieferung der aristotelische Psychologie im Islam</em>, Heidelberg, 1971. <ul class="hang"><li>A pioneering study of the key aspects of Aristotelian(ising) psychological theories in Islamic philosophy focusing on Avicenna.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Dag Hasse, <em>Avicenna’s De Anima in the Latin West</em>, London, 2000. <ul class="hang"><li>A study of the impact of Avicennan psychology upon the scholastics focusing on five key issues.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Michot, Jean R. <em>La destinée de l’homme selon Avicenne</em>, Brussels, 1986. <ul class="hang"><li> A key investigation of Avicennan psychology as a quest for an Islamic answer to the problem of the soul’s journey beyond this life and the persistence of personal identity.</li>
</ul></li>
<li>Rahman, Fazlur. <em>Avicenna’s Psychology</em>, London, 1952. <ul class="hang"><li>A study that includes a translation of Avicenna’s <em>De Anima. </em></li>
</ul></li>
</ul><h3> <a href="" name="SH10j"></a>j. Existence-Essence</h3><ul class="hang"><li>Goichon, Anne-Maria. <em>La distinction de l’essence et l’existence d’après ibn Sina (Avicenne)</em>, Paris, 1937.</li>
<li>Mayer, Toby. ‘Ibn Sina’s Burhan al-Siddiqin’, <em>Journal of Islamic Studies</em> 12 (2001), 18-39.</li>
<li>Parviz Morewedge, ‘Philosophical analysis of Ibn Sina’s essence-existence distinction’, <em>Journal of the American Oriental Society</em> 92 (1972), 42-35.</li>
<li>Rahman, Fazlur. ‘Essence and existence in Avicenna’, <em>Mediaeval Studies (Toronto)</em> 4 (1958), 1-16.</li>
<li>Rahman, Fazlur. ‘Essence and existence in Ibn Sina: the myth and the reality’, <em>Hamdard Islamicus (Karachi)</em> 4 (1981), 3-14.</li>
<li>Rizvi, Sajjad. ‘Roots of an aporia in later Islamic philosophy: the existence-essence distinction in the philosophies of Avicenna and Suhrawardi’, <em>Studia Iranica (Paris</em>) 29 (2000), 61-108.</li>
</ul>Sourches: http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/ </div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-66601871865677475722011-11-24T05:03:00.000-08:002011-11-24T05:03:48.111-08:00Biography of Averrous [Ibn Rusyd]<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://poetraboemi.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/ibn-rushd-bild11.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://poetraboemi.files.wordpress.com/2010/02/ibn-rushd-bild11.jpg" width="316" /></a></div><br />
<br />
Abu al-Walid Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Rushd, better known in the Latin West as Averroes, lived during a unique period in Western intellectual history, in which interest in philosophy and theology was waning in the Muslim world and just beginning to flourish in Latin Christendom. Just fifteen years before his birth, the great critic of Islamic philosophy, al-Ghazzali (1058-1111), had died after striking a blow against Muslim <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/neoplato/">Neoplatonic philosophy</a>, particularly against the work of the philosopher <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/">Ibn Sina (Avicenna)</a>. From such bleak circumstances emerged the Spanish-Muslim philosophers, of which the jurist and physician Ibn Rushd came to be regarded as the final and most influential Muslim philosopher, especially to those who inherited the tradition of Muslim philosophy in the West.<br />
His influential commentaries and unique interpretations on <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aristotl/">Aristotle</a> revived Western scholarly interest in <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/greekphi/">ancient Greek philosophy</a>, whose works for the most part had been neglected since the sixth century. He critically examined the alleged tension between philosophy and religion in the <em>Decisive Treatise, </em>and he challenged the anti-philosophical sentiments within the Sunni tradition sparked by al-Ghazzali. This critique ignited a similar re-examination within the Christian tradition, influencing a line of scholars who would come to be identified as the “Averroists.”<br />
Ibn Rushd contended that the claim of many Muslim theologians that philosophers were outside the fold of Islam had no base in scripture. His novel exegesis of seminal Quranic verses made the case for three valid “paths” of arriving at religious truths, and that philosophy was one if not the best of them, therefore its study should not be prohibited. He also challenged Asharite, Mutazilite, Sufi, and “literalist” conceptions of God’s attributes and actions, noting the philosophical issues that arise out of their notions of occasionalism, divine speech, and explanations of the origin of the world. Ibn Rushd strived to demonstrate that without engaging religion critically and philosophically, deeper meanings of the tradition can be lost, ultimately leading to deviant and incorrect understandings of the divine.<br />
This article provides an overview of Ibn Rushd’s contributions to philosophy, emphasizing his commentaries, his original works in Islamic philosophy, and his lasting influence on medieval thought and the Western philosophical tradition.<br />
<h3>Table of Contents</h3><ol><li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H1">Biography </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H2">Note on Commentaries </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H3">Philosophy and Religion </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H4">Existence and Attributes of God </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H5">Origin of the World </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H6">Metaphysics </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H7">Psychology </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H8">Conclusion </a></li>
<li><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#H9">References and Further Reading </a> <ol><a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#SH9a">a. Primary Sources </a>
<a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/#SH9b">b. Secondary Sources</a></ol></li>
</ol><a href="" name="H1"></a><br />
<h2><a href="" name="H1"></a>1. Biography</h2>Ibn Rushd was born in Cordova, Spain, to a family with a long and well-respected tradition of legal and public service. His grandfather, the influential Abdul-Walid Muhammad (d. 1126), was the chief judge of Cordova, under the Almoravid dynasty, establishing himself as a specialist in legal methodology and in the teachings of the various legal schools. Ibn Rushd’s father, Abdul-Qasim Ahmad, although not as venerated as his grandfather, held the same position until the Almoravids were ousted by the Almohad dynasty in 1146.<br />
Ibn Rushd’s education followed a traditional path, beginning with studies in <em>hadith</em>, linguistics, jurisprudence and scholastic theology. The earliest biographers and Muslim chroniclers speak little about his education in science and philosophy, where most interest from Western scholarship in him lies, but note his propensity towards the law and his life as a jurist. It is generally believed that Ibn Rushd was influenced by the philosophy of Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), and perhaps was once tutored by him. His medical education was directed under Abu Jafar ibn Harun of Trujillo. His aptitude for medicine was noted by his contemporaries and can be seen in his major enduring work <em>Kitab al-Kulyat fi al-Tibb</em> (Generalities) This book, together with <em>Kitab al-Taisir fi al-Mudawat wa al-Tadbir</em> (Particularities) written by Abu Marwan Ibn Zuhr, became the main medical textbooks for physicians in the Jewish, Christian and Muslim worlds for centuries to come.<br />
Ibn Rushd traveled to Marrakesh and came under the patronage of the caliph ‘Abd al-Mu’min, likely involved in educational reform for the dynasty. The Almohads, like the Almoravids they had supplanted, were a Northwest African Kharijite-influenced Berber reform movement. Founded in the theology of Ibn Tumart (1078-1139), who emphasized divine unity and the idea of divine promise and threat, he believed that a positive system of law could co-exist with a rational and practical theology. This led to the concept that law needed to be primarily based on revelation instead of the traditions of the jurists. Ibn Talmart’s theology affirmed that the existence and essence of God could be established through reason alone, and used that to posit an ethical legal theory that depended on a divine transcendence.<br />
Ibn Rushd’s relationship with the Almohad was not merely opportunistic, (considering the support his father and grandfather had given to the Almoravids) for it influenced his work significantly; notably his ability to unite philosophy and religion. Sometime between 1159 and 1169, during one of his periods of residence in Marrakesh, Ibn Rushd befriended Ibn Tufayl (Abubacer), a philosopher who was the official physician and counselor to Caliph Abu Yaqub Yusuf, son of ‘Abd al-Mu’min. It was Ibn Tufayl who introduced Ibn Rushd to the ruler. The prince was impressed by the young philosopher and employed him first as chief judge and later as chief physician. Ibn Rushd’s legacy as the commentator of Aristotle was also due to Abu Yaqub Yusuf. Although well-versed in ancient philosophy, the prince complained about the challenge posed by the Greek philosopher’s texts and commissioned Ibn Rushd to write a series of commentaries on them.<br />
Through most of Ibn Rushd’s service, the Almohads grew more liberal, leading eventually to their formal rejection of Ibn Talmart’s theology and adoption of Malikite law in 1229. Despite this tendency, public pressure against perceived liberalizing tendencies in the government led to the formal rejection of Ibn Rushd and his writings in 1195. He was exiled to Lucena, a largely Jewish village outside of Cordoba, his writings were banned and his books burned. This period of disgrace did not last long, however, and Ibn Rushd returned to Cordoba two years later, but died the following year. Doubts about Ibn Rushd’s orthodoxy persisted, but as Islamic interest in his philosophy waned, his writings found new audiences in the Christian and Jewish worlds.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H2"></a>2. Note on Commentaries</h2>While this article focuses on Ibn Rushd’s own philosophical writings, a word about the significant number of commentaries he wrote is important. Ibn Rushd wrote on many subjects, including law and medicine. In law he outshone all his predecessors, writing on legal methodology, legal pronouncements, sacrifices and land taxes. He discussed topics as diverse as cleanliness, marriage, jihad and the government’s role with non-Muslims. As for medicine, in addition to his medical encyclopedia mentioned above, Ibn Rushd wrote a commentary on <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/avicenna/">Avicenna</a>’s medical work and a number of summaries on the works of Galen. Besides his own philosophical and theological work, Ibn Rushd wrote extensive commentaries on the texts of a wide range of thinkers. These commentaries provide interesting insights into how Ibn Rushd arrived at certain positions and how much he was authentically Aristotelian. Commissioned to explain Aristotle Ibn Rushd spent three decades producing multiple commentaries on all of Aristotle’s works, save his <em>Politics</em>, covering every subject from aesthetics and ethics to logic and zoology. He also wrote about Plato’s <em>Republic</em>, Alexander’s <em>De Intellectu</em>, the <em>Metaphysics</em> of Nicolaus of Damascus, the <em>Isagoge</em> of Porphyry, and the <em>Almajest</em> of Ptolemy. Ibn Rushd would often write more than one commentary on Aristotle’s texts; for many he wrote a short or paraphrase version, a middle version and a long version. Each expanded his examination of the originals and their interpretations by other commentators, such as Alexander of Aphrodisias, Themistius and Ibn Bajjah, The various versions were meant for readers with different levels of understanding.<br />
Ibn Rushd’s desire was to shed the prevalent Neoplatonic interpretations of Aristotle, and get back to what the Greek thinker originally had intended to communicate. Of course, Ibn Rushd did not shy away from inserting his own thoughts into his commentaries, and his short paraphrase commentaries were often flexible interpretations. At times, in an effort to explain complex ideas in Aristotle, Ibn Rushd would rationalize the philosopher in directions that would not seem authentic to contemporary interpreters of Aristotle. Nevertheless, Ibn Rushd’s commentaries came to renew Western intellectual interest in Aristotle, whose works had been largely ignored or lost since the sixth century.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H3"></a>3. Philosophy and Religion</h2>Until the eighth century, and the rise of the Mutazilite theology, Greek philosophy was viewed with suspicion. Despite the political support given to philosophy because of the Mutazilites and the early philosophers, a strong anti-philosophical movement rose through theological schools like the Hanbalites and the Asharites. These groups, particular the latter, gained public and political influence throughout the tenth and eleventh century Islamic world. These appealed to more conservative elements within society, to those who disliked what appeared to be non-Muslim influences. Ibn Rushd, who served a political dynasty that had come into power under a banner of orthodox reform while privately encouraging the study of philosophy, was likely sensitive to the increasing tensions that eventually led to his banishment. Though written before his exile his <em>Decisive Treatise</em> provides an apologetic for those theologians who charged philosophers with unbelief.<br />
Ibn Rushd begins with the contention that Law commands the study of philosophy. Many Quranic verses, such as “Reflect, you have a vision” (59.2) and “they give thought to the creation of heaven and earth” (3:191), command human intellectual reflection upon God and his creation. This is best done by demonstration, drawing inferences from accepted premises, which is what both lawyers and philosophers do. Since, therefore, such obligation exists in religion, then a person who has the capacity of “natural intelligence” and “religious integrity” must begin to study philosophy. If someone else has examined these subjects in the past, the believer should build upon their work, even if they did not share the same religion. For, just as in any subject of study, the creation of knowledge is built successively from one scholar to the next. This does not mean that the ancients’ teachings should be accepted uncritically, but if what is found within their teachings is true, then it should not be rejected because of religion. (Ibn Rushd illustrated this point by citing that when a sacrifice is performed with the prescribed instrument, it does not matter if the owner of the instrument shares the same religion as the one performing the sacrifice.)<br />
The philosopher, when following the proper order of education, should not be harmed by his studies, hence it is wrong to forbid the study of philosophy. Any harm that may occur is accidental, like that of the side effects of medicine, or from choking on water when thirsty. If serious harm comes from philosophical study, Ibn Rushd suggests that this is because the student was dominated by their passions, had a bad teacher or suffered some natural deficiency. Ibn Rushd illustrates this by quoting a saying of the Prophet Muhammad, when asked by a man about his brother’s diarrhea. The Prophet suggested that the brother should drink honey. When the man returned to say that his brother’s diarrhea had worsened, the Prophet replied, “Allah has said the truth, but your brother’s abdomen has told a lie” (Bukhari 7.71.588).<br />
Not all people are able to find truth through philosophy, which is why the Law speaks of three ways for humans to discover truth and interpret scripture: the demonstrative, the dialectical and the rhetorical. These, for Ibn Rushd, divide humanity into philosophers, theologians and the common masses. The simple truth is that Islam is the best of all religions, in that, consistent with the goal of Aristotelian ethics, it produces the most happiness, which is comprised of the knowledge of God. As such, one way is appointed to every person, consistent with their natural disposition, so that they can acquire this truth.<br />
For Ibn Rushd, demonstrative truth cannot conflict with scripture (i.e. Qur’an), since Islam is ultimate truth and the nature of philosophy is the search for truth. If scripture does conflict with demonstrative truth, such conflict must be only apparent. If philosophy and scripture disagree on the existence of any particular being, scripture should be interpreted allegorically. Ibn Rushd contends that allegorical interpretation of scripture is common among the lawyers, theologians and the philosophers, and has been long accepted by all Muslims; Muslims only disagree on the extent and propriety of its use. God has given various meanings and interpretations, both apparent and hidden, to numerous scriptures so as to inspire study and to suit diverse intelligences. The early Muslim community, according to Ibn Rushd, affirmed that scripture had both an apparent meaning and an inner meaning. If the Muslim community has come to a consensus regarding the meaning of any particular passage, whether allegorical or apparent, no one can contradict that interpretation. If there is no consensus about a particular passage, then its meaning is free for interpretation. The problem is that, with the international diversity and long history of Islam, it is all but impossible to establish a consensus on most verses. For no one can be sure to have gathered all the opinions of all scholars from all times. With this in mind, according to Ibn Rushd, scholars like al-Ghazzali should not charge philosophers with unbelief over their doctrines of the eternity of the universe, the denial of God’s knowledge of particulars, or denial of bodily resurrection. Since the early Muslims accepted the existence of apparent and allegorical meanings of texts, and since there is no consensus on these doctrines, such a charge can only be tentative. Philosophers have been divinely endowed with unique methods of learning, acquiring their beliefs through demonstrative arguments and securing them with allegorical interpretation.<br />
Therefore, the theologians and philosophers are not so greatly different, that either should label the other as irreligious. And, like the philosophers, the theologians interpret certain texts allegorically, and such interpretations should not be infallible. For instance, he contends that even the apparent meaning of scripture fails to support the theologian’s doctrine of creation <em>ex nihilo</em>. He highlights texts like 11:7, 41:11 and 65:48, which imply that objects such as a throne, water and smoke pre-existed the formation of the world and that something will exist after the End of Days.<br />
A teacher, then, must communicate the interpretation of scripture proper for his respective audiences. To the masses, Ibn Rushd cautions, a teacher must teach the apparent meaning of all texts. Higher categories of interpretations should only be taught to those who are qualified through education. To teach the masses a dialectical or demonstrative interpretation, as Ibn Rushd contends Ghazzali did in his <em>Incoherence</em>, is to hurt the faith of the believers. The same applies to teaching a theologian philosophical interpretations.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H4"></a>4. Existence and Attributes of God</h2>Ibn Rushd, shortly after writing his <em>Decisive Treatise</em>, wrote a treatise on the doctrine of God known as <em>Al-Kashf ‘an Manahij al-Adilla fi ‘Aqaid al-Milla (the Exposition of the Methods of Proof Concerning the Beliefs of the Community)</em>. His goal was to examine the religious doctrines that are held by the public and determine if any of the many doctrines expounded by the different sects were the intention of the “lawgiver.” In particular he identifies four key sects as the targets of his polemic, the Asharites, Mutazilites, the Sufis and the “literalists,” claiming that they all have distorted the scriptures and developed innovative doctrines not compatible with Islam. Ibn Rushd’s polemic, then, becomes a clear expression of his doctrine on God. He begins with examining the arguments for the existence of God given by the different sects, dismissing each one as erroneous and harmful to the public. Ibn Rushd contends that there are only two arguments worthy of adherence, both of which are found in the “Precious Book;” for example, surahs 25:61, 78:6-16 and 80:24-33. The first is the argument of “providence,” in which one can observe that everything in the universe serves the purpose of humanity. Ibn Rushd speaks of the sun, the moon, the earth and the weather as examples of how the universe is conditioned for humans. If the universe is, then, so finely-tuned, then it bespeaks of a fine tuner – God. The second is the argument of “invention,” stemming from the observation that everything in the world appears to have been invented. Plants and animals have a construction that appears to have been designed; as such a designer must have been involved, and that is God.<br />
From establishing the existence of God, Ibn Rushd turns to explaining the nature and attributes of God. Beginning with the doctrine of divine unity, Ibn Rushd challenges the Asharite argument that there cannot, by definition, be two gods for any disagreement between them would entail that one or both cannot be God. This, of course, means that, in the case of two gods, at least one’s will would be thwarted in some fashion at some time by the other; and such an event would mean that they are not omnipotent, which is a essential trait of deity. Ibn Rushd’s critique turns the apologetic on its head, contending that if there were two gods, there is an equal possibility of both gods working together, which would mean that both of their wills were fulfilled. Furthermore, Ibn Rushd adds, even disagreement would not thwart divine will, for alternatives could occur giving each god its desire. Such arguments lead to absurdity and are not fit for the masses. The simple fact is that reason affirms divine unity, which, by definition, is a confession of God’s existence and the denial of any other deity.<br />
Ibn Rushd maintains, as did most of his theologian contemporaries that there are seven divine attributes, analogous to the human attributes. These attributes are: knowledge, life, power, will, hearing, vision and speech. For the philosopher, the attribute of knowledge occupied much space in his writing on the attributes of God. He contends, especially in his <em>Epistle Dedicatory</em> and his <em>Decisive Treatise</em> that divine knowledge is analogous to human knowledge only in name, human knowledge is the product of effect and divine knowledge is a product of cause. God, being the cause of the universe, has knowledge based on being its cause; while humans have knowledge based on the effects of such causes.<br />
The implication of this distinction is important, since Ibn Rushd believes that philosophers who deny God’s knowledge of particulars are in error. God knows particulars because he is the cause of such things. But this raises an important question: does God’s knowledge change with knowledge of particulars? That is, when events or existents move from non-existence to existence, does God’s knowledge change with this motion? Change in divine knowledge would imply divine change, and for medieval thinkers it was absurd to think that God was not immutable.<br />
Ghazzali answered this dilemma by saying that God’s knowledge does not change, only his relationship with the object. Just like a person sitting with a glass of water on their left side does not fundamentally change when that same glass is moved to their right side. Ibn Rushd felt that Ghazzali’s answer did not solve the dilemma, stating that a change in relationship is still change. For Ibn Rushd, then, the solution came in his contention that divine knowledge is rooted in God being the eternal Prime Mover—meaning that God eternally knows every action that will be caused by him. God, therefore, does not know that event when it occurs, as humans would, because he has always known it.<br />
As for the other traits, Ibn Rushd next turns to the attribute of life, simply stating that life necessarily flows from the attribute of knowledge, as evidenced in the world around us. Divine will and power are defined as essential characteristics of God, characteristics that define God as God. This is because the existence of any created being implies the existence of an agent that willed its existence and had the power to do so. (The implication of this, Ibn Rushd notes, is that the Asharite concept that God had eternally willed the existence of the world, but created it at some particular point in time, is illogical.)<br />
In regards to divine speech, Ibn Rushd is aware of the great theological debate in Islam about whether the Qur’an, the embodiment of God’s speech, is temporally created or eternal. Ibn Rushd contends that the attribute of divine speech is affirmed because it necessarily flows from the attributes of knowledge and power, and speech is nothing more than these. Divine speech, Ibn Rushd notes, is expressed through intermediaries, whether the work of the angels or the revelations given to the prophets. As such, “the Qur’an…is eternal but the words denoting it are created by God Almighty, not by men.” The Qur’an, therefore, differs from words found elsewhere, in that the words of the Qur’an are directly created by God, while human words are our own work given by God’s permission.<br />
Ibn Rushd concludes by discussing divine hearing and vision, and notes that scripture relates these attributes to God in the sense that he perceives things in existing things that are not apprehended by the intellect. An artisan would know everything in an artifact he had created, and two means of this knowledge would be sight and sound. God, being God, would apprehend all things in creation through all modes of apprehension, and as such would have vision and hearing.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H5"></a>5. Origin of the World</h2>Turning from the attributes of God to the actions of God, where he delineates his view of creation, Ibn Rushd in his <em>Tahafut al-Tahafut</em> clearly deals with the charge against the philosopher’s doctrine on the eternity of the physical universe in his polemic against al-Ghazzali. Ghazzali perceived that the philosophers had misunderstood the relationship between God and the world, especially since the Qur’an is clear on divine creation. Ghazzali, sustaining the Asharite emphasis on divine power, questioned why God, being the ultimate agent, could not simply create the world <em>ex nihilo</em> and then destroy it in some future point in time? Why did there need to be some obstacle to explain a delay in God’s creative action? In response to this, Ghazzali offered a number of lengthy proofs to challenge the philosopher’s assertions.<br />
Ibn Rushd, who often labeled Ghazzali’s arguments dialectical, sophistical or feeble, merely replied that the eternal works differently than the temporal. As humans, we can willfully decide to perform some action and then wait a period of time before completing it. For God, on the other hand, there can be no gap between decision and action; for what differentiates one time from another in God’s mind? Also, what physical limits can restrict God from acting? Ibn Rushd, in the first discussion, writes about how Ghazzali confused the definition of eternal and human will, making them univocal. For humans, the will is the faculty to choose between two options, and it is desire that compels the will to choose. For God, however, this definition of will is meaningless. God cannot have desire because that would entail change within the eternal when the object of desire was fulfilled. Furthermore, the creation of the world is not simply the choice between two equal alternatives, but a choice of existence or non-existence. Finally, if all the conditions for action were fulfilled, there would not be any reason for God not to act. God, therefore, being omniscient and omnipotent would have known from the eternal past what he had planned to create, and without limit to his power, there would no condition to stop the creation from occurring.<br />
Ghazzali’s argument follows the typical Asharite kalam cosmological argument, in that he argues the scientific evidence for the temporal origin of the world, and reasons from that to the existence of a creator. Ghazzali’s first proof contends that the idea of the infinite number of planetary revolutions as an assumption of the eternity of the world is erroneous since one can determine their revolution rates and how much they differ when compared one to another. Ibn Rushd weakly maintains that the concept of numbered planetary revolutions and their division does not apply to eternal beings. To say that the eternal can be divided is absurd since there can be no degrees to the infinite. Oliver Leaman explains how Ibn Rushd accepted accidental but not essential infinite series of existents. There can be an infinite chain of human sexual generation, but those beings that are essentially infinite have neither beginning nor end and thus cannot be divided.<br />
In his <em>Decisive Treatise</em> Ibn Rushd summarily reduces the argument between the Asharite theologians and the ancient philosophers to one of semantics. Both groups agree that there are three classes of being, two extremes and one intermediate being. They agree about the name of the extremes, but disagree about the intermediate class. One extreme is those beings that are brought into existence by something (matter), from something other than itself (efficient cause) and originate in time. The second, and opposite, class is that which is composed of nothing, caused by nothing and whose existence is eternal; this class of being is demonstratively known as God. The third class, is that which is comprised of anything or is not preceded by time, but is brought into existence by an agent; this is what is known as the world. Theologians affirm that time did not exist before the existence of the world, since time is related to the motion of physical bodies. They also affirm that the world exists infinitely into the future. As such, since the philosophers accept these two contentions, the two groups only disagree on the existence of the world in the eternal past.<br />
Since the third class relates to both the first and second classes, the dispute between the philosophers and the theologians is merely how close the third class is to one of the other two classes. If closer to the first class, it would resemble originated beings; if closer to the second class, it would resemble more the eternal being. For Ibn Rushd, the world can neither be labeled pre-eternal nor originated, since the former would imply that the world is uncaused and the latter would imply that the world is perishable.<br />
Ibn Rushd finds pre-existing material forms in Quranic texts such as 11:9, where he maintains that one finds a throne and water pre-existing the current forms of the universe; he contends that the theologians’ interpretation of such passages are arbitrary. This is because nowhere in the Qur’an is the idea of God existing as pure being before the creation of the world to be found.<br />
The debate for Ibn Rushd and Ghazzali centers, ultimately, upon the idea of causation. Ghazzali, the dedicated Asharite, wants to support the position that God is the ultimate cause of all actions; that no being in the universe is the autonomous cause of anything. For instance, a spark put on a piece of wood does not cause fire; rather God causes the fire and has allowed the occasion of spark and wood to be the method by which he creates fire. God, if he so desired, could simply will fire not to occur when a spark and wood meet. For Ghazzali, this is the explanation of the occurrence of miracles: divine creative actions that suspend laws habitually accepted by humans. Ghazzali, in his <em>Tahafut</em>, speaks of the decapitated man continuing to live because God willed it so.<br />
Ibn Rushd, the consummate Aristotelian, maintains in his <em>Tahafut</em> Aristotle’s contention that a full explanation of any event or existence needs to involve a discussion of the material, formal, efficient and final cause. Ibn Rushd, then, insists that Ghazzali’s view would be counter-productive to scientific knowledge and contrary to common-sense. The universe, according to the human mind, works along certain causal principles and the beings existing within the universe contain particular natures that define their existence; if these natures, principles and characteristics were not definitive, then this would lead to nihilism (i.e. the atheistic materialists found in the Greek and Arab worlds). As for the idea of cause and effect being a product of habitual observation, Ibn Rushd asks if such observations are a product of God’s habit or our own observations. It cannot, he asserts, be the former, since the Qur’an speaks of God’s actions as unalterable. If the latter, the idea of habit applies only to animate beings, for the habitual actions of inanimate objects are tantamount to physical laws of motion.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H6"></a>6. Metaphysics</h2>Metaphysics, for Ibn Rushd, does not simply deal with God or theology; rather it concerns itself with different classes of being and the analogical idea of being. It is, thus, a science that distinguishes inferior classes of being from real being. Ibn Rushd, the adamant Aristotelian, puts his own slant on Aristotle’s metaphysics. Ibn Rushd’s classification of being begins with accidental substances, which are physical beings, then moves to being of the soul / mind and finally discusses whether the substance existing outside the soul, such as the sphere of the fixed stars, is material or immaterial. This hierarchy, notes Charles Genequand, differs from Aristotle’s hierarchy of material beings, beings of the soul / mind and unchangeable entities. The first and third categories of both thinkers are somewhat similar in that they encompass a straight demarcation between material and immaterial being. Ibn Rushd’s second class of being, however, includes both universals and mathematical beings; and as such cannot be the bridge between physics and metaphysics as it is in Aristotle. Rather, he contended that all autonomous beings, whether material or not, constitute a single category. This was likely a response to the more materialistic interpretations of Aristotle, such as that of Alexander of Aphrodisias, for Ibn Rushd did not see physics and the metaphysical at opposite sides of the spectrum.<br />
Substance, not beings of the mind, was the common link between physics and metaphysics for Ibn Rushd. Substance, therefore, has an ontological, though not necessarily temporal, priority over other parts of being. Since, then, metaphysics covers both sensible and eternal substances, its subject matter overlaps with that of physics. In the cosmos, then, there are two classes of eternal things, the essentially eternal and the numerically eternal. This division represents the separation between the celestial realm and the physical universe, where the living beings in the latter are bound to an eternal cycle of generation and corruption, while the former are immortal animals. Ibn Rushd does not contend that celestial bodies cause the world, rather the motion of these bodies are the “principle” of what occurs on earth.<br />
This point is more fully developed in Ibn Rushd’s discussion regarding spontaneous generation: the idea that certain beings are created by external agents without being subject to the cycle of generation and corruption. This was a common subject of debate throughout later Greek and medieval philosophy. If beings like insects spontaneously generated from rotting food are externally generated, therein lies proof for a created universe and Asharite occasionalism, neither of which Ibn Rushd maintains. His solution is the Aristotelian doctrine of emanation, which states that no being is created but merely is the principle that unites matter and form. Since Ibn Rushd asserts that physical generation is the product of both seed, which contains forms in potentiality, and solar heat, the sun being a heavenly being; spontaneous generation, in which the seed is absent, is merely the effect of solar heat upon the basic elements (i.e. earth and water).<br />
In the cosmological sphere, according to physics, one finds things that are both moving and moved at once and things that are only moved. Therefore, there must be something that imparts motion but is never moved; this is the Prime Mover (i.e. God). Physics, thus, provides the proof for the existence of a Prime Mover, and metaphysics is concerned with the action of this mover. The Prime Mover is the ultimate agent for Ibn Rushd and it must be eternal and pure actuality. It did not merely push the universe into existence and remain idle thereafter, for the universe would slip into chaos. Ibn Rushd acknowledges that the idea of actuality being essentially prior to potentiality counters common sense, but to accept the opposite would entail the possibility of spontaneous movement or negation of movement within the universe.<br />
How, then, is the Prime Mover the principle of motion and causation in the cosmos without being moved itself? Ibn Rushd contends that the Prime Mover moves the cosmos, particularly the celestial bodies, by being the object of desire. Celestial beings have souls, which possess the higher power of intellect and desire, and these beings desire the perfection of God, thereby they move accordingly. Desire in the celestial beings, according to Ibn Rushd, is not the real faculty it is in humans. Since these beings have no sense perception, desire is united with intellect causing a desire for what rationally is perfection – the Prime Mover.<br />
Ibn Rushd rejects the Arab Neoplatonic doctrine of emanation because it simply implies a temporal succession of one being producing another, which is impossible for eternal beings. By this rejection, however, Ibn Rushd recognizes a problem within his system. If God is intellectually present within the celestial bodies, there is no need for them to move in an effort to acquire this perfection. Ibn Rushd responds with an analogy of a cabinet-maker, who has the idea of a cabinet existing in his mind, but his body needs to move in order to imprint this idea upon matter. Celestial beings move in likewise matter, in order to obtain perfection, which produces the physical universe. Furthermore, this effort to obtain perfection in the celestial bodies, which is in imitation of God, effects the order of the universe.<br />
With the Prime Mover, the celestial bodies and the physical world, Ibn Rushd has a three level cosmological view. He illustrates his cosmological order by using the analogy of the state, where everyone obeys and imitates the king. All smaller social units in the kingdom, like the family, are subordinate to the head, which is ultimately under the authority of the king. There is a hierarchy among the spheres of celestial beings, based on their “nobility” (<em>sharaf</em>) and not, as Avicenna held, on their order in emanation. Of course, the order of nobility parallels emanation’s order, for the hierarchical order is that which we see in the universe, the fixed stars, the planets, the moon and the earth. Like a king, the Prime Mover imparts motion only to the First Body (the sphere of the fixed stars), which becomes the intermediary for the other bodies. This leads to the other spheres (i.e. planets) to desire both the Prime Mover and the First Body, which, according to Ibn Rushd, explains how the celestial bodies move from east to west at one time and from west to east at another time. It is the desire of one that moves the planets in one way, and the desire of the other that moves them in the opposite direction.<br />
Ultimately, as H. Davidson notes, Ibn Rushd has a cosmos in which the earth is its physical center. Surrounding the earth, at different levels, are the celestial spheres, which contain celestial bodies (e.g. the sun, moon, stars and planets), which all revolve around the earth. The motion of these spheres is attributed to immortal intelligences, governed by a primary immutable and impersonal cause. Each sphere exists in its own right, though somehow the intelligence is caused by the Prime Mover, and it is through their contemplation of the Prime Mover they receive perfection equivalent to the position they hold in the cosmological hierarchy. As such, God no longer is restricted to being a cause of one thing. The active intellect is the last sphere in the hierarchy, but is not the product of another, and like the other intelligences its cognition is fixed on God. This idea has significant influence on Ibn Rushd’s doctrine of the human soul and intellect.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H7"></a>7. Psychology</h2>Like Aristotle, Ibn Rushd views the study of the psyche as a part of physics, since it is related specifically to the generable and corruptible union of form and matter found in the physical world and passed from generation to generation through the seed and natural heat. Ibn Rushd’s views on psychology are most fully discussed in his <em>Talkbis Kitab al-Nafs</em> (Aristotle on the Soul). Here Ibn Rushd, as M. Fakhry comments, divided the soul into five faculties: the nutritive, the sensitive, the imaginative, the appetitive and the rational. The primary psychological faculty of all plants and animals is the nutritive or vegetative faculty, passed on through sexual generation, as noted above. The remaining four higher faculties are dependent on the nutritive faculty and are really perfections of this faculty, the product of a nature urging to move higher and higher.<br />
The nutritive faculty uses natural heat to convert nutrients from potentiality to actuality, which are essential for basic survival, growth and reproduction of the living organism. , This faculty is an active power which is moved by the heavenly body (Active Intellect). Meanwhile, the sensitive faculty is a passive power divided into two aspects, the proximate and the ultimate, in which the former is moved within the embryo by the heavenly body and the latter is moved by sensible objects. The sensitive faculty in finite, in that it is passive, mutable, related to sensible forms and dependent upon the animal’s physical senses (e.g. touch or vision). A part of these senses, notes Fakhry, is the <em>sensus communis</em>, a sort of sixth sense that perceives common sensibles (i.e. objects that require more than one sense to observe), discriminates among these sensibles, and comprehends that it perceives. Benmakhlouf notes that the imaginative faculty is dependent on the sensitive faculty, in that its forms result from the sensible forms, which Fakhry contends are stored in <em>sensus communis</em>. It differs from the sensitive faculty, however, by the fact that it “apprehends objects which are no longer present…its apprehensions are often false or fictitious,” and it can unite individual images of objects perceived separately. Imagination is not opinion or reasoning, since it can conceive of unfalsified things and its objects are particular not universal, and may be finite because it is mutable (moving from potentiality to actuality by the forms stored in the <em>sensus communis</em>). The imaginative faculty stimulates the appetitive faculty, which is understood as desire, since it imagines desirable objects. Fakhry adds that the imaginative and appetitive faculties are essentially related, in that it is the former that moves the latter to desire or reject any pleasurable or repulsive object.<br />
The rational faculty, seen as the capstone of Ibn Rushd’s psychology by Fakhry, is unlike the imaginative faculty, in that it apprehends motion in a universal way and separate from matter. It has two divisions, the practical and theoretical, given to humans alone for their ultimate moral and intellectual perfection. The rational faculty is the power that allows humanity to create, understand and be ethical. The practical is derived from the sensual and imaginative faculties, in that it is rooted in sensibles and related to moral virtues like friendship and love. The theoretical apprehends universal intelligibles and does not need an external agent for intellectualization, contrary to the doctrine of the Active Intellect in Neoplatonism.<br />
In its effort to achieve perfection, the rational faculty moves from potentiality to actuality. In doing so it goes through a number of stages, know as the process of intellectation. Ibn Rushd had discerned, as seen in his Long Commentary on <em>De Anima</em>, five distinct meanings of the Aristotelian intellect. They were, first and foremost, the material (potential) and the active (agent) intellects.<br />
There is evidence of some evolution in Ibn Rushd’s thought on the intellect, notably in his Middle Commentary on <em>De Anima</em> where he combines the positions of Alexander and Themistius for his doctrine on the material intellect and in his Long Commentary and the <em>Tahafut</em> where Ibn Rushd rejected Alexander and endorsed Themistius’ position that “material intellect is a single incorporeal eternal substance that becomes attached to the imaginative faculties of individual humans.” Thus, the human soul is a separate substance ontologically identical with the active intellect; and when this active intellect is embodied in an individual human it is the material intellect. The material intellect is analogous to prime matter, in that it is pure potentiality able to receive universal forms. As such, the human mind is a composite of the material intellect and the passive intellect, which is the third element of the intellect. The passive intellect is identified with the imagination, which, as noted above, is the sense-connected finite and passive faculty that receives particular sensual forms. When the material intellect is actualized by information received, it is described as the speculative (habitual) intellect. As the speculative intellect moves towards perfection, having the active intellect as an object of thought, it becomes the acquired intellect. In that, it is aided by the active intellect, perceived in the way Aristotle had taught, to acquire intelligible thoughts. The idea of the soul’s perfection occurring through having the active intellect as a greater object of thought is introduced elsewhere, and its application to religious doctrine is seen. In the <em>Tahafut</em>, Ibn Rushd speaks of the soul as a faculty that comes to resemble the focus of its intention, and when its attention focuses more upon eternal and universal knowledge, it become more like the eternal and universal. As such, when the soul perfects itself, it becomes like our intellect. This, of course, has impact on Ibn Rushd’s doctrine of the afterlife. Leaman contends that Ibn Rushd understands the process of knowing as a progression of detachment from the material and individual to become a sort of generalized species, in which the soul may survive death. This contradicts traditional religious views of the afterlife, which Ibn Rushd determines to be valuable in a political sense, in that it compels citizens to ethical behavior.<br />
Elsewhere, Ibn Rushd maintains that it is the Muslim doctrine of the afterlife that best motivates people to an ethical life. The Christian and Jewish doctrines, he notes, are too focused upon the spiritual elements of the afterlife, while the Muslim description of the physical pleasures are more enticing. Of course, Ibn Rushd does not ultimately reject the idea of a physical afterlife, but for him it is unlikely.<br />
A number of other problems remain in Ibn Rushd’s doctrine of the soul and intellect. For instance, if the material intellect is one and eternal for all humans, how is it divided and individualized? His immediate reply was that division can only occur within material forms, thus it is the human body that divides and individualizes the material intellect. Nevertheless, aside from this and other problems raised, on some of which <a href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/aquinas/">Aquinas</a> takes him to task, Ibn Rushd succeeded in providing an explanation of the human soul and intellect that did not involve an immediate transcendent agent. This opposed the explanations found among the Neoplatonists, allowing a further argument for rejecting Neoplatonic emanation theories. Even so, notes Davidson, Ibn Rushd’s theory of the material intellect was something foreign to Aristotle.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H8"></a>8. Conclusion</h2>The events surrounding Ibn Rushd towards the end of his life, including his banishment, signaled a broader cultural shift in the Islamic world. Interest in philosophy was primarily among the elite: scholars, royal patrons and civil servants. Nevertheless, its presence among the ruling elite spoke of the diversity of what it meant to be “Muslim.” As interest in philosophy waned in the Muslim world after Ibn Rushd, his writings found new existence and intellectual vigor in the work of Christian and Jewish philosophers. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries saw an intellectual revival in the Latin West, with the first great universities being established in Italy, France and England. Within the walls of the University of Paris, a group of philosophers came to identify themselves with the Aristotelian philosophy presented by Ibn Rushd, particularly certain elements of its relation to religion. Later known as the “Averroists,” these Christian philosophers sparked a controversy within the Roman Catholic Church about the involvement of philosophy with theology. Averroists, their accusers charged, had promoted the doctrines of one intellect for all humans, denial of the immortality of the soul, claimed that happiness can be found in this life and promoted the innovative doctrine of “double truth”. Double truth, the idea that there are two kinds of truth, religious and philosophical, was not held by Ibn Rushd himself but was an innovation of the Averroists.<br />
Among Jewish thinkers, however, Ibn Rushd had a more positive impact. His thoughts on Aristotle and the relationship between philosophy and religion, particularly revelation, inspired a renewed interest in the interpretation of scripture and the Jewish religion. Key Jewish philosophers, such as Maimonides, Moses Narboni and Abraham ibn Ezra, became associated with Ibn Rushd in the West, even though they took Ibn Rushd’s doctrines into novel directions. As such, Leaman notes, the category of a Jewish “Averroist” cannot be given to these philosophers, for their relationship with Ibn Rushd’s thought was one of critique and integration into their own philosophical systems. Nevertheless, without the work of the Spanish-Muslim philosopher, much of what occurred in medieval philosophy would have not existed. He became an example of how religions are dynamic and evolving traditions, often shaped by epistemological influences from other traditions.<br />
<h2><a href="" name="H9"></a>9. References and Further Reading</h2><a href="" name="SH9a"></a><br />
<h3>a. Primary Sources</h3><ul class="hang"><li>Ibn Rushd, with Commentary by Moses Narboni, <em>The Epistle on the Possibility of Conjunction with the Active Intellect</em>. K. Bland (trans.). (New York: Jewish Theological Seminary of America, 1982).</li>
<li>Ibn Rushd, <em>Decisive Treatise & Epistle Dedicatory</em>. C. Butterworth (trans.). (Provo: Brigham Young University Press, 2001).</li>
<li>Ibn Rushd, <em>Faith and Reason in Islam [al-Kashf]</em>. I. Najjar (trans.). (Oxford: Oneworld, 2001).</li>
<li>Ibn Rushd, <em>Long Commentary on Aristotle’s De Anima</em>. A. Hyman (trans.), <em>Philosophy in the Middle Ages</em> (Cambridge: Hackett, 1973).</li>
<li>Ibn Rushd, <em>Middle Commentary on Aristotle’s Categories and De Interpretatione</em>. C. Butterworth (trans.). (South Bend: St. Augustine’s Press, 1998).</li>
<li>Ibn Rushd, <em>Tahafut al-Tahafut</em>. S. Van Den Bergh (trans.). (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954).</li>
<li>Ibn Rushd, <em>Treatise Concerning the Substance of the Celestial Sphere</em>. A. Hyman (trans.), <em>Philosophy in the Middle Ages</em> (Cambridge: Hackett, 1973).</li>
</ul><a href="" name="SH9b"></a><br />
<h3>b. Secondary Sources</h3><ul class="hang"><li>J. Al-Alawi, “The Philosophy of Ibn Rushd: the Evolution of the Problem of the Intellect in the works of Ibn Rushd.” Jayyusi, Salma Khadra (ed.), <em>The Legacy of Muslim Spain</em>, (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1994).</li>
<li>R. Arnaldez, <em>Ibn Rushd: A Rationalist in Islam</em> (Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1998)</li>
<li>A. Benmakhlour, <em>Ibn Rushd</em> (Paris: Les Belles Lettres, 2000)</li>
<li>D. Black, “Ibn Rushd, the Incoherence of the Incoherence.” <em>The Classics of Western Philosophy: a Reader’s Guide</em>. Eds. Jorge Gracia, Gregory Reichberg and Bernard Schumacher (Oxford: Blackwell, 2003).</li>
<li>D. Black “Consciousness and Self-Knowledge in Aquinas’s Critique of Ibn Rushd’s Psychology.” <em>Journal of the History of Philosophy</em> 31.3 (July 1993): 23-59.</li>
<li>D. Black, “Memory, Time and Individuals in Ibn Rushd’s Psychology.” <em>Medieval Theology and Philosophy</em> 5 (1996): 161-187</li>
<li>H. Davidson, <em>Alfarabi, Avicenna, and Ibn Rushd, on Intellect: Their Cosmologies, Theories of the Active Intellect and Theories of Human Intellect</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992).</li>
<li>C. Genequand, “Metaphysics.” <em>History of Islamic Philosophy</em>. S. Nasr and O. Leaman (eds.). (New York: Routledge, 2001).</li>
<li>M. Hayoun et A. de Libera, <em>Ibn Rushd et l’Averroisme</em> (Paris: Presses Universitaries de France, 1991).</li>
<li>A. Hughes, <em>The Texture of the Divine: Imagination in Medieval Islamic and Jewish Thought</em> (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003)</li>
<li>M. Fakhry, <em>A History of Islamic Philosophy</em> (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983)</li>
<li>M. Fakhry, <em>Ibn Rushd</em> (Ibn Rushd) (Oxford: Oneworld, 2001)</li>
<li>M. Fakhry, <em>Islamic Occasionalism: and its Critique by Ibn Rushd and Aquinas</em> (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1958).</li>
<li>I. Lapidus, <em>A History of Islamic Societies</em> (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988)</li>
<li>O. Leaman, <em>Ibn Rushd and His Philosophy</em> (New York: Oxford University Press, 1988)</li>
<li>O. Leaman, <em>An Introduction to Classical Islamic Philosophy</em> (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002)</li>
<li>O. Leaman, “Ibn Rushd” <em>Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</em> Vol. 4. E. Craig (gen. ed.) (London: Routledge, 1998).</li>
<li>O. Mohammed, <em>Ibn Rushd’s Doctrine of Immortality: a Matter of Controversy</em> (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier Press, 1984).</li>
<li>D. Urvoy, “Ibn Rushd.” <em>History of Islamic Philosophy</em>. S. Nasr and O. Leaman (eds.). (New York: Routledge, 2001).</li>
<li>D. Urvoy, <em>Ibn Rushd (Ibn Rushd)</em> (London: Routledge, 1991).</li>
</ul><br />
Sourches: http://www.iep.utm.edu/ibnrushd/ </div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-49904754216124228062011-11-24T04:43:00.000-08:002011-11-24T04:43:41.542-08:00Qira'at and Variant Type For Reading<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Text/Qiraat/qiraat.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://www.islamic-awareness.org/Quran/Text/Qiraat/qiraat.gif" width="183" /></a></div><br />
<br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Qira'at ada macam-macam jenisnya.">Qira'at there are various types. </span><span title="pendapat tentang qira'at itu sendiri juga sangatlah beragam dan semua pendapat tersebut sangatlah berbobot seperti yang tertera di bawah ini.">opinion about qira'at itself is also very diverse and all opinions are highly weighted as shown below.<br />
</span><span title="Pengarang kitab Al-Itqan menyebutkan macam-macam qira'at itu ada yang mutawatir, masyhur, Syadz, ahad, maudhu' dan mudarraj.">Author of the book Al-Itqan which types qira'at there is mutawatir, famous, Syadz, Munday, maudhu 'and mudarraj.<br />
</span><span title="Qadhi' Jalaluddin al-Bulqiny mengatakan: Qira'at itu terbagi ke dalam: mutawatir, ahad dan syadz.">Qadi 'Jalaluddin al-Bulqiny said: qira'at was divided into: mutawatir, Munday and syadz.<br />
</span><span title="Yang mutawatir adalah qira'at tujuh yang masyhur.">The mutawatir is qira'at seven famous. </span><span title="Yang ahad adalah qira'at tsalatsa (tiga) yang menjadi pelengkap qira'ah 'asyrah (sepuluh), yang kesemuanya dipersamakan dengan qira'at para sahabat.">That Munday is qira'at tsalatsa (three), which became a complement qira'ah 'asyrah (ten), all of which are similar qira'at friends. </span><span title="Adapun qira'at yang syadz ialah qira'at para tabi'in seperti qira'at A'masy, Yahya ibnu Watsab, Ibnu Jubair dan lain-lain.">As for the syadz qira'at is qira'at the tabi'in like qira'at A'masy, Yahya ibn Watsab, Ibn Jubayr and others.<br />
</span><span title="Imam as-Suyuthy mengatakan bahwa kata-kata di atas perlu ditinjau kembali.">Imam as-Suyuthy said that the words on the need to be revisited. </span><span title="Yang pantas untuk berbicara dalam bidang ini adalah tokoh qurra' pada masanya yang bernama Syaikh Abu al-Khair ibnu al-Jazary dimana beliau mengatakan dalam muqaddimah kitabnya An-Nasyr: "Semua qira'at yang sesuai dengan bacaan Arab walau hanya satu segi saja dan">Appropriate to speak in this field is qurra figure 'in his time called Shaykh Abu al-Khair ibn al-Jazary where he says in his book An-Nasyr Prolegomena: "All qira'at in accordance with Arabic reading if only one aspect and </span><span title="sesuai dengan salah satu mushhaf Utsmany walaupun hanya sekedar mendekati serta sanadnya benar maka qira'at tersebut adalah shahih (benar), yang tidak ditolak dan haram menentangnya, bahkan itu termasuk dalam bagian huruf yang tujuh dimana Al-Qur'an diturunkan. Wajib bagi semua">in accordance with one Mushhaf Utsmany although just really close and then qira'at sanadnya is saheeh (correct), which is not rejected and forbidden against it, even it is included in the seven letters in which the Qur'an was revealed. Compulsory for all </span><span title="orang untuk menerimanya baik timbulnya dari imam yang tujuh maupun dari yang sepuluh atau lainnya yang bisa diterima. Apabila salah satu persyaratan yang tiga tersebut di atas tidak terpenuhi maka qira'at itu dikatakan qira'at yang syadz atau bathil, baik datangnya dari aliran yang tujuh">person to receive both the emergence of the seven priests as well as from the other ten or acceptable. If one of the three requirements mentioned above are not met then it is said qira'at qira'at the syadz or false, whether the flow comes from the seven </span><span title="maupun dari tokoh yang lebih ternama lagi. Inilah pendapat yang benar menurut para muhaqqiq dari kalangan salaf maupun khalaf.">nor of the more prominent figures again. This opinion is right according to the Muhaqqiq of the Salaf and Khalaf.<br />
</span><span title="Pengarang kitab Ath-Thayyibah dalam memberikan batas diterimanya qira'at mengatakan: Setiap bacaan yang sesuai dengan nahwu, mirip dengan tulisan mushhaf Utsmany, benar adanya itulah bacaan.">Authorship of the Ath-Thayyibah in providing acceptance limits qira'at says: Every reading in accordance with Nahwu, similar to writing Mushhaf Utsmany, that's true reading. </span><span title="Ketiga sendi ini, bila rusak salah satunya menyatakan itu cacat, meski dari qira'at sab'ah datangnya.">Third joint of this, when damaged one of them declared it flawed, despite the arrival of qira'at sab'ah.<br />
</span><span title="Qira'at ada yang mengartikan qira'at sab'ah, qira'at sepuluh dan qira'at empat belas.">Qira'at there who interpret qira'at sab'ah, qira'at qira'at ten and fourteen. </span><span title="Semuanya yang paling terkenal dan nilai kedudukannya tinggi ialah qira'at sab'ah.">Everything is the most famous and high-value position is qira'at sab'ah.<br />
</span><span title="Qira'at sab'ah (tujuh) adalah qira'at yang dinisbatkan kepada imam yang tujuh dan terkenal, yaitu: Nafi', Ashim, Hamzah, Abdullah bin Amir, Abdullah ibnu Katsir, Abu Amer ibnu 'Ala' dan Ali al-Kisaiy">Qira'at sab'ah (seven) is attributed to the priest qira'at the seven and famous, namely: Nafi ', Asim, Hamza, Abdullah bin Amir, Abdullah ibn Kathir, Abu Amer ibn' Ala 'and' Ali al-Kisaiy </span><span title=".">.<br />
</span><span title="Qira'at 'asyar (sepuluh) adalah qira'at yang tujuh ditambah dengan qira'at: Abi Ja'far, Ya'qub dan Khalaf.">Qira'at 'Asr (ten) is a seven-plus qira'at qira'at: Abi Ja'far, Ya'qub and Khalaf.<br />
</span><span title="Qira'at arba' 'asyar (empat belas) yaitu qira'at yang sepuluh ditambah empat qira'at: Hasan al-Bashry, Ibnu Mahish, Yahya al-Yazidy dan asy-Syambudzy.">Qira'at arba '' Asr (fourteen) of the ten plus four qira'at qira'at: Hasan al-Bashry, Ibn Mahish, Yahya al-Yazidy and ash-Syambudzy.<br />
</span><span title="Ilmu qira'at adalah ilmu yang lahir pada masa yang sebelumnya tidak pernah disebut-sebut.">Qira'at science is the science that was born in that time had not been previously mentioned. </span><span title="Orang yang pertama menyusunnya adalah Abi Ubaid al-Qasim ibnu Sallam, Abu Hatim as-Sajistany, Abi Ja'far ath-Thabary dan Ismail al-Qadhy.">The person who first arranged the Abi Ubayd al-Qasim ibn Sallam, Abu Hatim as-Sajistany, Abi Ja'far ath-Thabary and Ismail al-Qadhy.<br />
</span><span title="Bilakah qira'at menjadi populer?">When will qira'at become popular?<br />
</span><span title="Qira'at sab'ah populer diseluruh negara Islam pada permulaan abad kedua hijriyah.">Qira'at sab'ah popular throughout the Islamic state at the beginning of the second century AH. </span><span title="Di Bashrah orang membaca menurut qira'at Abi Amr dan Ya'qub.">In Basrah people read by qira'at Abi Amr and Ya'qub. </span><span title="Di Kufah menurut qira'at Hamzah dan Ashim, di Syam menurut qira'at Ibnu Amir, di Makkah menurut qira'at Ibnu Katsir dan di Madinah menurut qira'at Nafi'.">In Kufa according qira'at Hamzah and Ashim, in Sham according qira'at Ibn Amir, in Makkah according to Ibn Kathir qira'at and in Medina according qira'at Nafi '.</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-51047779577818916912011-11-24T04:16:00.000-08:002011-11-24T04:16:45.343-08:00Introduction to 'Ulumul Quran<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://dc190.4shared.com/img/2lVbny7c/mana_al-qathan_mabahits_fi_ulu.pdf" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://dc190.4shared.com/img/2lVbny7c/mana_al-qathan_mabahits_fi_ulu.pdf" /></a></div><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Al Qur'an adalah mukjizat islam yang abadi dimana semakin maju ilmu pengetahuan, semakin tampak validitas kemukjizatannya.">Qur'an is the eternal miracle of Islam where the more advanced science, the more visible the validity kemukjizatannya. </span><span title="Allah subhanahu wa ta'ala menurunkannya kepada nabi Muhammad shallallahu 'alaihi wa sallam demi membebaskan manusia dari berbagai kegelapan menuju cahaya Ilahi dan membimbing mereka ke jalan yang lurus.">Allaah down to the Prophet Muhammad sallallaahu 'alaihi wa sallam to free mankind from darkness into light the various Divine and guide them to the straight path. </span><span title="Jika terdapat sesuatu yang kurang jelas bagi mereka tentang ayat-ayat yang mereka terima, mereka langsung menanyakannya kepada rasulullah.">If there is something less obvious to many of the verses that they receive, they immediately ask the Messenger of Allah.<br />
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</span><span title="Imam bukhari dan muslim meriwayatkan dari Ibnu Mas'ud radiyallahu anhu, bahwa ketika turun ayat">Imam bukhari and Muslim narrated from Ibn Mas'ud radiyallahu anhu, that when it comes down verse<br />
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</span><span title="الَّذِينَ آمَنُوا وَلَمْ يَلْبِسُوا إِيمَانَهُم بِظُلْمٍ أُولَٰئِكَ لَهُمُ الْأَمْنُ وَهُم مُّهْتَدُونَ ﴿٨٢﴾">الذين آمنوا ولم يلبسوا إيمانهم بظلم أولئك لهم الأمن وهم مهتدون) 82 (<br />
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</span><span title="“Orang-orang yang beriman dan tidak mencampuradukkan iman mereka dengan kezaliman (syirik), mereka Itulah yang mendapat keamanan dan mereka itu adalah orang-orang yang mendapat petunjuk” (QS: al an'am: 82).">"People who believe and confuse not their faith with injustice (shirk), That's what they got security and they are the ones who receive guidance" (Surah: Al An'am: 82).<br />
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</span><span title="Para shahabat merasa keberatan dengan ayat tersebut.">The Companions objected to the verse. </span><span title="Lalu mereka bertanya kepada rasulullah shallallahu 'alaihi wa sallam, “wahai rasulullah, mana ada orang yang tidak mendzalimi dirinya?”.">Then they asked the Messenger of Allaah sallallaahu 'alaihi wa sallam, "O Allah's Apostle, where there are people who do not mendzalimi him?". </span><span title="Beliau menjawab, “Pemahamannya tidak seperti yang kalian maksudkan, tidakkah kalian mendengar apa yang dikatakan seorang hamba yang shaleh kepada anaknya.”">He replied, "His understanding is not as you mean, do you not hear what was said a pious servant to his son."<br />
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</span><span title="وَإِذْ قَالَ لُقْمَانُ لِابْنِهِ وَهُوَ يَعِظُهُ يَا بُنَيَّ لَا تُشْرِكْ بِاللَّهِ ۖ إِنَّ الشِّرْكَ لَظُلْمٌ عَظِيمٌ ﴿١٣﴾">وإذ قال لقمان لابنه وهو يعظه يا بني لا تشرك بالله إن الشرك لظلم عظيم) 13 (<br />
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</span><span title="“Sesungguhnya mempersekutukan (Allah) adalah benar-benar kezaliman yang besar".(QS: Luqman: 13)">"Verily, allying (God) is really a great injustice." (Qur'an: Luqman: 13)<br />
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</span><span title="Para shahabat sangat bersemangat untuk mendapatkan pengajaran al qur'an dari rasulullah.">The Companions are very excited to get the teaching of the prophet al qur'an. </span><span title="Mereka ingin menghafal dan memahaminya.">They want to memorize and understand. </span><span title="Bagi mereka, ini merupakan suatu kehormatan.">For them, this is an honor. </span><span title="Seiring dengan itu, mereka juga bersungguh-sungguh mengamalkan dan menegakkan hukum-hukumnya.">Along with that, they also earnestly practice and enforce its laws.<br />
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</span><span title="Abu abdirahman As-sulami meriwayatkan, bahwa orang-orang yang biasa membacakan al qur'an kepada kami, seperti Utsman bin Affan dan Abdullah bin Mas'ud serta yang lainnya, apabila mereka belajar sepuluh ayat dari nabi shallallahu'alaihi wa sallam, mereka enggan">Abdirahman Abu As-Sulami narrates, that the people who used to recite the Quran to us, like Uthman ibn Affan and Abdullah ibn Mas'ud and others, when they learned ten verses from the prophet shallallahu'alaihi wa sallam, they are reluctant </span><span title="melewatinya sebelum memahami dan mengamalkannya.">understand and practice it through it before. </span><span title="Mereka mengatakan, kami mempelajari al qur'an, ilmu dan amal sekaligus.">They said, we studied al qur'an, science and charity as well.<br />
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</span><span title="Rasulullah shallallahu'alaihi wa sallam tidak mengizinkan mereka menulis apapun selain al qur'an, sebab ditakutkan dapat tercampur aduk dengan yang lain.">Messenger shallallahu'alaihi wa sallam did not allow them to write anything other than al qur'an, because fear can be mixed with others. </span><span title="Imam Muslim meriwayatkan dari Abu Said al-khudri, bahwa rasulullah shallallahu'alaihi wa sallam bersabda, “janganlah sekali-kali menulis apapun dariku.">Imam Muslim narrated from Abu Said al-Khudri that the Messenger of Allâh shallallahu'alaihi wa sallam said, "do not ever write anything from me. </span><span title="Barangsiapa menulis sesuatu selain al qur'an dariku maka hapuslah.">Whoever writes from me something other than al qur'an then delete it. </span><span title="Sampaikanlah haditsku tidak masalah.">Convey haditsku no problem. </span><span title="Namun barangsiapa mendustakan aku dengan sengaja, maka nerakalah tempatnya”">But whosoever shall deny me intentionally, then the Fire place "<br />
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</span><span title="Sekalipun rasulullah shallallahu 'alaihi wa sallam pernah mengizinkan sebagian shahabatnya setelah itu menulis hadits, sesungguhnya hal-hal yang berkaitan dengan al qur'an masih tetap bersandar pada riwayat, yaitu melalui talqin (belajar al qur'an langsung dari seorang guru yang memiliki sanad bersambung">Although the Messenger of Allâh sallallaahu 'alaihi wa sallam never allow some companions after that write the hadith, the real things that are associated with al qur'an still rests on history, namely through talqin (al qur'an learn directly from a teacher who has a sanad concatenated </span><span title="kepada Nabi).">to the Prophet). </span><span title="Demikianlah yang terjadi pada masa Rasul, masa khalifah Abu Bakar dan Umar radiyallahu anhuma.">So that happened during the Prophet, the Caliph Abu Bakr and Umar radiyallahu anhuma. </span><span title="Lalu pada masa khalifah Utsman radiyallahu anhu, sesuai dengan tuntutan kondisi, membuat suatu ijtihad, yaitu demi menyatukan kaum muslimin dengan pedoman satu mushaf yang kemudian diberi nama mushaf al-Imam.">Then at the time of Caliph Uthman radiyallahu anhu, in accordance with the demands of the conditions, make an ijtihad, that is to unite the Muslims with the guidelines of the Manuscripts which later was named Mushaf al-Imam. </span><span title="Selanjutnya, mushaf tersebut dikirim ke berbagai negeri saat itu.">Furthermore, Manuscripts were sent to various countries at that time. </span><span title="Adapun tulisan huruf-hurufnya disebut rasm Utsmani, yang dikaitkan dengan nama Khalifah Utsman.">As for writing the letters referred to rasm Ottomans, which was associated with the name of Caliph Uthman. </span><span title="Langkah ini adalah awal munculnya ilmu penulisan rasm al qur'an.">This step was the beginning of the science of writing rasm al qur'an.<br />
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</span><span title="Kemudian khalifah Ali radiyallahu anhu menyuruh Abul Aswad Ad-Duali untuk menggagas kaidah nahwu, demi menjaga adanya kekeliruan dalam pengucapan dan untuk memantapkan bagi pembacaan al qur'an.">Then the Caliph Ali radiyallahu anhu told Abul Aswad Ad-Nahwu Duali to conceive a rule, in order to maintain the existence of errors in pronunciation and to stabilize the reading of al qur'an. </span><span title="Hal ini dianggap sebagai cikal bakal dari munculnya ilmu i'rab al qur'an.">It is considered a forerunner of the emergence of science i'rab al qur'an.<br />
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</span><span title="Para shahabatpun meneruskan tradisi memahami makna-makna al qur'an dan tafsirnya sesuai dengan kondisi mereka masing-masing, baik kemampuan yang berbeda dalam memahami maupun intensitas dalam kedekatannya dengan rasulullah.">The shahabatpun continued the tradition of understanding the meanings of the Qur'an and its interpretation in accordance with their respective conditions, both different capacities to understand and intensity in proximity to the prophet. </span><span title="Selanjutnya, dalam kondisi demikianlah murid-murid para shahabat dari kalangan tabi'in mengambil ilmu dari mereka.">Furthermore, in conditions so disciples of the Companions of the tabi'in take knowledge of them.<br />
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</span><span title="Diantara para mufasir yang terkenal di kalangan para shahabat nabi adalah empat khalifah, Ibnu Mas'ud, Ibnu Abbas, Ubay bin Ka'ab, Zaid bin Tsabit, Abu Musa al-Asy'ari dan Abdullah bin az-Zubair.">Among the famous exegetes among the companions of the prophet is four caliphs, Ibn Mas'ud, Ibn Abbas, Ubayy ibn Ka'b, Zaid ibn Thabit, Abu Musa al-Ash'ari and Abdullah ibn az-Zubayr.<br />
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</span><span title="Adapun dari kalangan tabi'in, tidak sedikit yang menimba ilmu dari shahabat dan kemudian melakukan ijtihad dalam menafsirkan ayat.">As of the tabi'in, not a few who gain knowledge from the Companions and then perform ijtihad in interpreting the clause. </span><span title="Di antara murid-murid Ibnu Abbas yang cukup termasyhur adalah Said bin Jubair, Mujahid, Ikrimah maula Ibnu Abbas, Thawus bin Kisan al Yamani dan Atha' bin Rabah.">Among the disciples of Ibn Abbas, who is quite famous is the Said ibn Jubayr, Mujahid, Ikrimah Maula Ibn Abbas, Ibn Thawus Kisan al Yamani and Atha 'ibn Rabah.<br />
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</span><span title="Murid Ubay bin Ka'ab yang popular di Madinah adalah Zaid bin Aslam, Abul Aliyah dan Muhammad bin Ka'ab al Qurazhi.">Pupils Ubay ibn Ka'b that popular in Medina is Zaid ibn Aslam, Abu Al-Aliyah and Muhammad ibn Ka'b al Qurazhi. </span><span title="Di Iraq terdapat beberapa murid Abdullah bin Mas'ud yang juga terkenal sebagai mufassir.">In Iraq there are some students Abdullah bin Mas'ud who was also known as an exegete. </span><span title="Mereka yaitu Alqamah bin Qais, Masruq bin al-Alda', Aswad bin yazid, Amir asy-sya'bi, Hasan al bashri dan Qatadah bin Di'amah as-Sadusi.">They are Alqama bin Qais, Masruq ibn al-Alda ', Aswad ibn Yazid, Amir al-sya'bi, Hasan al-Basri and Qatadah bin Di'amah as-Sadusi.<br />
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</span><span title="Adapun jenis ilmu yang diriwayatkan dari mereka itu mencakup: ilmu tafsir, ilmu gharib al qur'an, ilmu asbab an-nuzul, ilmu makkiyah dan madaniyah dan ilmu nasikh-mansukh.">The type of science that was narrated from them include: Tafsir, al qur'an ghareeb science, science asbab an-nuzul, and Madaniyah makkiyah science and science-mansukh Nasikh. </span><span title="Tetapi, semua ini diriwayatkan dengan cara talqin (belajar dari guru).">But, all this was narrated by talqin (learning from the teacher).<br />
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</span><span title="Pada masa selanjutnya, sekelompok ulama melakukan penafsiran secara komprehensif terhadap al qur'an sesuai tertibnya ayat yang ada dalam mushaf.">In the next period, a group of scholars conduct a comprehensive interpretation of the corresponding tertibnya al qur'an verse is in the Mushaf. </span><span title="Di antara mereka yang terkenal adalah Ibnu Jarir ath-thabari (wafat 310H).">Among them is the famous Ibn Jarir Tabari (d. 310H).<br />
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</span><span title="Demikianlah, pertama kali tafsir dilakukan dengan metode dari mulut ke mulut dan periwayatan, lalu mengalami proses kodifikasi, tapi masih masuk dalam bab-bab hadits.">Thus, the first interpretation is done by word of mouth method and transmission, and then undergo a process of codification, but still included in the chapters of hadith. </span><span title="Lalu pada tahap berikutnya dikodifikasikan secara mandiri.">Then on the next stage codified independently. </span><span title="Kemudian muncul tafsir bil ma'tsur (yang menggunakan dalil-dalil dari al qur'an, hadits nabi, serta perkataan para shahabat dan salafush-shalih) dan tafsir bir-ra'yi (yang menggunakan akal atau pendapat pribadi).">Then came the tafsir bil ma'tsur (which uses the arguments of al-qur'an, hadith the Prophet, and sayings of the Companions and salafush-righteous) and beer-ra'yi interpretation (which use common or personal opinion).<br />
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</span><span title="Inilah beberapa kajian yang dikenal sebagai studi ilmu-ilmu al qur'an.">Here are a few studies known as the study of sciences al qur'an. </span><span title="Sekarang kita beralih kepada definisi singkat tentang Ulumul Qur'an.">Now we turn to a brief definition of Ulumul Qur'an.<br />
</span><span title="‘ulum adalah bentuk plural dari ‘ilm.">'Ulum is the plural form of' ilm. </span><span title="'Ilm sendiri maknanya adalah al fahmu wa al-idrak (pemahaman dan pengetahuan).">'Ilm al fahmu own meaning is wa al-idrak (understanding and knowledge). </span><span title="Kemudian pengertiannya dikembangkan kepada kajian berbagai masalah yang beragam dengan standar ilmiah.">Then your understanding is developed to study a diverse range of problems with scientific standards.<br />
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</span><span title="Dan yang dimaksud dengan 'Ulum Al-Qur'an yaitu suatu ilmu yang mencakup berbagai kajian yang berkaitan dengan kajian-kajian al qur'an seperti: pembahasan tentang asbab an-nuzul, pengumpulan al qur'an dan penyusunannya, masalah makkiyah dan madaniyah,">What is meant by 'Ulum al-Qur'an is a science that includes a variety of studies related to al qur'an studies such as: discussion of an-nuzul asbab, al qur'an collection and compilation, and Madaniyah makkiyah problems, </span><span title="nasikh dan mansukh, muhkam dan mutasyabihat dan lain-lain.">Nasikh and mansukh, muhkam and mutashabihat and others.<br />
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</span><span title="Terkadang ulumul Qur'an juga disebut sebagai ushul at-tafsir (dasar-dasar/ prinsip-prinsip) karena memuat berbagai pemahaman dasar atau pokok yang wajib dikuasai dalam menafsirkan Al-Qur'an.">Sometimes Ulumul Quran also referred to as usul at-tafsir (the basics / principles) because it contains a variety of basic or fundamental understanding that must be mastered in interpreting the Qur'an.<br />
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</span><span title="(disadur dari kitab mabahits fi 'ulumul qur'an, syaikh Manna' al Qaththan, bab 1)">(Adapted from the book mabahits fi 'Ulumul the Quran, Sheikh Manna' al Qaththan, chapter 1)</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-59416559873293884042011-11-24T04:06:00.000-08:002011-11-24T04:06:49.483-08:00Tafsir, Variant Books and Short Review<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://kitabtafseer.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/tafsir-ibnu-kathir.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://kitabtafseer.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/tafsir-ibnu-kathir.jpg" /></a></div><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Resensi Tafsir Al-Mishbah">Tafseer Al-Mishbah Review</span><span title="Judul: Tafsir Al-Mishbah">Title: Tafseer Al-Mishbah</span><span title="Penulis: M Quraisy Syihab">Authors: M Quraish Shihab</span><span title="Penerbit: Lentera Hati">Publisher: Lantern Heart</span><span title="Tafsir Al-Mishbah merupakan tafsir kontemporer yang bagus dipakai untuk menafsirkan Al-Qur'an.">Tafseer Al-Mishbah is a good contemporary interpretations used to interpret the Quran. </span><span title="Tafsir ini bila dibandingkan dengan tafsir sebelumnya sedikit terdapat kelebihan karena sudah mencerminkan perkembangan mutakhir dalam pendekatan terhadap Al-Qur'an.">This interpretation when compared with previous interpretations little there is excess because it reflects the latest developments in the approach to the Qur'an.</span><span title="Dalam rangka memahami aspek akidah, syariah dan akhlak yang terkandung dalam Al-Qur'an.">In order to understand aspects of the creed, sharia and morals contained in the Qur'an. </span><span title="Disamping itu, juga ada sedikit menyitir pandapat Mahmud Syaltut (ulama Al-Azhar) yaitu:">In addition, there is also little cited pandapat Mahmud Syaltut (Al-Azhar scholars), namely:</span><span title="- Perintah memperhatikan alam semesta">- Commands attention universe</span><span title="- Perintah mengamati perkembangan manusia">- The command to observe the development of human</span><span title="- Kisah Nabi-Nabi dan orang-orang saleh terdahulu">- Story of Prophets and pious people earlier</span><span title="- Janji dan ancaman dunia dan akhirat">- The promise and threat of the world and the hereafter</span><span title="Quraisy Syihab juga menambahkan pendekatan melalui:">Quraish Shihab also added approach through:</span><span title="- Ketelitian dan keindahan redaksi Al-Qur'an">- Accuracy and beauty editor of Al-Quran</span><span title="- Isyarat ilmiah">- Cues scientific</span><span title="- Pemberitaan hal gaib pada masa lalu dan masa depan yang diungkapkannya">- Preaching of the occult in the past and future expressed</span><span title="Tafsir yang terdiri dari 15 jilid dan memiliki ketebalan halaman yang bervariasi antara 257 hingga 765 halaman perjilid ini, diberi tema Pesan, Kesan dan Keserasian Al-Qur'an, ini memberi pengertian bahwa ketiga pendekatan diatas terutama sekali ketelitian dan keindahan redaksi sangat banyak mewarnai penafsiran">Tafseer which consists of 15 volumes and has a thickness varying between 257 pages to 765 pages this perjilid, given the theme of messages, impressions and Harmony of the Qur'an, this gives the sense that the three approaches above mainly precision and beauty editors are very much colored the interpretation </span><span title="yang dilakukan.">carried out.</span><span title="Tafsir ini juga mengemukakan dan membuktikan keserasian-keserasian dalam redaksi Al-Qur'an yaitu:">This commentary also argues and proves harmony-harmony in the redaction of the Qur'an as follows:</span><span title="- Kata demi kata dalam satu surah">- Word for word in one sura</span><span title="- Hubungan ayat dengan ayat berikutnya">- Relations with the next verse verse</span><span title="- Uraian awal satu surah dengan penutupnya">- Description of the beginning of the sura with lid</span><span title="- Penutup surah dengan uraian awal surah sesudahnya tema surat dengn nama surah">- Closing sura by sura after the initial description of the theme of the letter dengn sura name<br />
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</span><span title="Resensi Tafsir Al-Manar">Review Tafseer Al-Manar</span><span title="Judul: tafsir Al-Manar">Title: Al-Manar commentary</span><span title="Penulis: Muhammad Abduh">Authors: Muhammad Abduh</span><span title="Penerbit: Dar Al-Manar (Qairo)">Publisher: Dar Al-Manar (Qairo)</span><span title="Tafsir Al-Manar berdasarkan hasil perkuliahan Muhammad Abduh tentang penafsiran Al-Qur'an yang beliau sampaikan di Al-Azhar, yang kemudian disusun setelah beliau wafat (tahun 1905) oleh murid beliau, Rasyid Ridha dengan judul Tafsir Al-Qur'an Al-">Tafseer Al-Manar on the basis of lectures on the interpretation of Muhammad Abduh Al-Quran which he gave at Al-Azhar, which is then compiled after his death (1905), by his disciple, Rashid Rida entitled Tafsir Al-Quran Al- </span><span title="Hakim.">Hakim. </span><span title="Namun dikemudian hari, kitab ini populer dengan sebutan Al-Manar">But someday, this book popularly known as Al-Manar</span><span title="Kitab ini terdiri dari 12 Juz pertama dari Al-Qur'an, yaitu surat Al-Fatihah sampai dengan ayat 53 surat Yusuf.">This book consists of 12 first juz of the Quran, ie Al-Fatihah verse 53 letter to Joseph. </span><span title="Sedangkan penafsiran dari awal sampai ayat 126 surat A-Nisa' diambil dari corak pemikiran Muhammad Abduh, selebihnya ditafsirkan oleh Rasyid Ridha dengan memakai metode yang digunakan gurunya.">While the interpretation of paragraph 126 from the beginning to letter A-Nisa 'taken from the patterns of thought Muhammad Abduh, Rashid Rida, the rest is interpreted by using the method used his teacher. </span><span title="Dalam menafsirkan AL-Qur'an, Abduh lebih cenderung mengkombinasikan antara riwayat yang sahih dan rasionalisme, yang diharapkan bisa untuk menjelaskan hikmah-hikmah syariat sunnatullah, serta eksistensi dari Al-Qur'an itu sendiri sebagai petunjuk bagi ummat manusia.">In interpreting the Qur'aan, Abduh more likely to combine the history that is valid and rationalism, which is expected to explain the wisdom of wisdom sunnatullah Shari'a, as well as the existence of Al-Qur'an itself as a guide for mankind. </span><span title="Selain itu, Tafsir ini juga mengilustrasikan banyak tentang masalah-masalah sosial yang dituntaskan dengan sudut pandang Al-Qur'an">Moreover, this interpretation also illustrates much about the social problems which completed the viewpoint of the Qur'an</span><span title="Tafsir Al-Manar adalah salah satu kitab Tafsir yang banyak berbicara tentang sastra-budaya dan kemasyarakatan.">Tafseer Al-Manar is one of the books of Tafseer that a lot of talk about literature, culture and society. </span><span title="Suatu corak penafsiran yang menitik beratkan penjelasan Al-Qur'an pada segi penelitian redaksi kata, yang kemudian kemudian menyusun kandungan ayat-ayatnya dalam suatu redeaksi yang indah dengan penekanan pada tujuan pertama turunnya Al-Qur'an, yakni memberikan petunjuk bagi kehidupan manusia,">A mode of interpretation which focuses explanation of the Qur'an in terms of editorial said the study, which later came to arrange the content of the verses in a beautiful redeaksi with emphasis on the first drop goal of the Qur'an, which provide clues to human life, </span><span title="dan merangkaikan pengertian ayat-ayat tersebut dengan hukum-hukum alam yang berlaku dalam masyarakat dan kemajuan peradaban manusia.">and weave understanding these verses with the natural laws that prevail in society and the advancement of human civilization.</span><span title="- Keterangan resensi Tafsir Al-Manar diatas merujuk kepada Ulumul Qur'an karya Ahmad Von Denffer">- Description reviewer Tafseer Al-Manar on the Qur'an refers to the work of Ahmad Von Ulumul Denffer<br />
</span><span title="Resensi Tafsir Al-Maraghi">Tafseer Al-Maraghi Review</span><span title="Judul: Tafsir Al-Maraghi">Title: Tafseer Al-Maraghi</span><span title="Penulis: Ahmad Mustafa Al-Maraghi">Authors: Ahmad Mustafa Al-Maraghi</span><span title="Metode penulisan Tafsir karya Ahmad Mustafa Al-Maraghi ini adalah sebagai berikut:">The method of writing works of Tafsir Ahmad Mustafa Al-Maraghi are as follows:</span><span title="- Menyampaikan ayat-ayatnya diawal pembahasan">- Delivering the verses at the beginning of the discussion</span><span title="- Disertakan penjelasan kata secara bahasa untuk kata yang sulit dipahami">- Included explanation of the word in the language for words that are difficult to understand</span><span title="- Pengertian makna ayat secara ijmal, akan memberikan pengertian secara penuh sebelum masuk kepengertian tafsir">- Understanding the meaning of the verse in summary, will provide a full understanding before entering kepengertian interpretation</span><span title="- Dilengkapi dengan penjelasan sebab-sebab turun ayat-ayat tertentu (Asbabun Nuzul)">- Equipped with an explanation of the causes of certain verses down (Asbabun Nuzul)</span><span title="- Gaya bahasa yang mudah dipahami untuk kondisi sekarang ini karena sesuai dengan perkembangan ilmu pengetahuan">- An easily understandable style for today's conditions because in accordance with the development of science</span><span title="- Juga kisah-kisah yang dianggap kurang ilmiah ditiadakan di tafsir ini, karena dikhawatirkan dapat menimbulkan kontradiksi dengan ayat yang ditafsirkan">- Also the stories that are considered less scientifically negligible in this interpretation, because it feared could lead to a contradiction with verses that are interpreted</span><span title="- Kitab tafsir ini disusun dalam 30 jilid, setiap jilid satu juz, supaya dapat mempermudah para pembacanya">- Book of commentary is organized into 30 volumes, each volume of the chapters, in order to facilitate its readers<br />
</span><span title="Resensi Tafsir Jalalain">Review Jalalain</span><span title="Judul: Tafsir Jalalain">Title: Jalalain</span><span title="Penulis: Jalaluddin As-Suyuti dan Jalaluddin Al-Mahalli">Writer: Jalaluddin Jalaluddin As-Suyuti and al-Mahalli</span><span title="Penerjemah: Mahyuddin Syaf dan Badrun Abubakar Lc">Translators: Mahyuddin Syaf and Badrun Abubakar Lc</span><span title="Tafsir Jalalain merupakan kitab tafsir yang lebih memfokuskan pembahasannya kepada penganalisaan segi susunan kalimatnya, asal-usul kata-katanya, dan tata cara membacanya.">Jalalain is a book of commentary that is more focused discussion on the analysis in terms of sentence structure, origin of words, and reading procedures. </span><span title="Tafsir ini terdiri dari dua jilid, yang masing-masing jilid ditulis oleh seorang mufassir yang telah saya sebutkan namanya diatas.">This commentary consists of two volumes, each volume written by an exegete who I have mentioned his name above. </span><span title="Dimulai dari surat Al-Baqarah sampai akhir surat An-Isra' ditulis oleh mufassir Jalaluddin As-Suyuti.">Starting from surat Al-Baqarah until the end of An-Isra 'written by Jalaluddin As-Suyuti mufassir. </span><span title="Selanjutnya dari surat Al-Kahfi hingga surat An-Nass ditulis oleh Jalaluddin Al-Mahalli.">Furthermore, from surat Al-Kahf An-Nass to letters written by Jalaluddin Al-Mahalli. </span><span title="Untuk kelengkapan terjemahan tafsir ini, yaitu pada setiap surat Al-Qur'an dicantumkan asbabun-nuzulnya berasal dari kitab Lubabun-Nuqul karangan Jalaluddin As-Suyuti.">For completeness of the translation of this commentary, that is every letter of the Qur'an-nuzulnya asbabun listed are from the book of essays Lubabun-Nuqul Jalaluddin As-Suyuti. </span><span title="Kitab ini terletak di pinggir kitab tafsir Jalalain.">The book is located on the edge of the book of commentary Jalalain. </span><span title="Dalam terjemahan tafsir ini, tafsir surat Al-Fatihah diletakkan pada awal terjemahan supaya sesuai dengan Al-Qur'an (Mushaff Utsmani).">In this commentary translation, interpretation of Al-Fatihah is placed at the beginning of the translation to fit the Al-Quran (Mushaff Ottoman).</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-44344816713638535112011-11-24T03:35:00.000-08:002011-11-24T03:35:14.465-08:00A Biography of the Ayatullah Khomeini<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://js2.top-10-list.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/Ayatullah-Khomeini1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="252" src="http://js2.top-10-list.org/wp-content/uploads/2009/06/Ayatullah-Khomeini1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
<br />
A nice, noble and revolutionary personality of Islamic World - Ayalollah-al-Udhma Imam Khomaini. <br />
With an outstanding personality since childhood, Ruhollah al- Musavi al-Khomeini, has achieved not only his own personal high level of Jurisprudence but has guided the Muslims of the world to revolt against the tyrannical and oppressive regiemes that dominate them. <br />
Imam Khomeini's Childhood <br />
Born in 1901 AD his birthday coincides with the anniversary of the auspicious birth of Hadrat Fatima (SA), the most revered and highly respected woman in Islam. Imam Khomeini was born into a religious family; his father, Ayatollah Seyyed Mustafa Musavi was educated in Najaf and Samarra, and later returned to his birthplace, Khomein, where he was the religious leader of the people until his death at the age of 42. Imam Khomeini's mother also had a religious background for she was the daughter of Ayatollah Mirza Ahmad, an exalted theologian. <br />
Due to the early death of his father, the Imam was brought up under the loving care of his mother and his aunt Sahiba, however, when he was at the early age of fifteen his aunt came to an untimely end, and shortly afterwards his mother also passed away. The loss of his dear ones was a severe blow to one so Young but it also served to strengthen the will of Imam Khomeini and cemented his faith in Allah the Almighty all the more: <br />
From early childhood the Imam paid keen interest in his studies. At a very early age he learned to read and write, and his elder brother, Ayatollah Passandideh also taught him Arabic grammar and logic along with the rudiments of many other subjects. <br />
To further his studies Imam Khomeini studied literature at the Center for Theological studies in Arak and later in Qom, and became an authority on theological and canon law. <br />
The Qualities of This Man The Symbol of Love, Independence And Freedom <br />
A self made man, refined in manners the Imam has always stressed the performance of religious duties and observance of the Islamic tenets. Wed versed in all branches of the rational and traditional sciences, he began to teach philosophy at the age of 27, and he has written many books on various aspects of religion. At the age of 30, Imam Khomeini married the daughter of a religious scholar and their marriage was blessed with two sons and three daughters. <br />
The Imam has always spoken out against the oppression and tyranny in the world with a resonant voice. His constant protest against the former tyrannical regime in Iran stirred fire in the hearts of the Pahlavi regime and their hatred was openly displayed when. After imprisoning the Imam, they eventually exiled him from his native land. <br />
In October of 1962 the Cabinet of the despotic government of the Shah approved a bill for the establishment of provincial and city councils. According to this bill, the stipulation of 'Islam' which the constitution of the country ordained that all those elected to the Majlis should believe in, was omitted from the law and then elected representative could take an oath on any holy scripture they accepted, not necessarily the glorious Qur'an protests from Qom spat defiantly at the Shah on this issue and Imam Khomeini sent a cable to Alam, then Prime Minister in strong protest of his actions, opposing the bill and for the first time he issued warnings against such councils and their Zionist inclinations and warned them against this action whilst calling the people to struggle. He openly protested against the torturing and imprisonment of the people by the government and at the same time the government supported Zionism and safeguarded the interests of the US <br />
Public opposition surged and the religious circles in Qom proposed an all-out strike of the Iranian work force. A state of emergency was declared in Tehran and two months later, in a press conference the P.M. announced the former approval of the bill - null and void. <br />
Events of 1963 <br />
The religious circles in Qom had declared that the Muslims should not celebrate the New Year (the vernal equinox) because the anniversary of the martyrdom of Imam As-Sadiq (A.S.) fell on the second day of the New Year. The deposed king was dismayed when he saw the people supporting religion and Imam Khomeini, so he decided to frustrate his opponents' plan. On the morning of the second day of Farvardin (the first month of the Iranian calendar), a number of the Shah's supporters and SAVAK (Shah's secret police) agents arrived in Qom in cars and buses. Troops in army vehicles armed with heavy machine guns poured into the town. The Imam's home was full of people. All of a sudden anti-religious slogans were heard. At the Faiziyyeh School, some hooligans created disturbances and attacked the people there. The Shah's agents opened fire on the people and the Muslim clergies. The Shah wanted to bully the clergy into remaining silent so that he could have a free hand, and further tyrannize the nation, thereby pleasing his master - the US government. <br />
No sooner had the Imam received the news of the event than he came to pacify the people. He said: "Keep calm. You are the followers--, of those leaders in your religion who suffered greater atrocities. Such an outrage serves as a boomerang. Many a great figure of Islam suffered death in order to uphold Islam and entrust it to you. Therefore it is up to you to preserve this sacred heritage" The Imam's speech carried weight not only because the speaker was threatened with death, but because at such a critical time he promised victory for the people and defeat for the Shah. <br />
Imam Khomeini requested the exalted religious leaders in Tehran to disclose the atrocities of the region. He also urged the religious preachers to refer in their sermons to the outrageous behavior of the regime towards the clergy, to the threat of Israel and its agents and to the actual threat to Islam. <br />
Imam Khomeini was always welcomed warmly by the people. The heartfelt support that the masses gave to the religious leadership filled the regime with frustration. The regime saw this as an obstacle to its policies. The only religious figure remaining who gave the religious leadership weight with the people and allowed it to be a determining factor in Iranian society was Ayatollah Khomeini. Thus he was threatened by SAVAK to stop giving sermons at the Faiziyveh School. However he went there on the afternoon of Ashura the 10th of Muharram, (to commemorate the martyrdom of Imam Hussain) and said: <br />
"We have come to the conclusion that they are against Islam and the religious leadership. Israel wants to discredit the Qur'an, Our Holy Scripture and wipe out the religious leadership. Israel wants to tighten its grip on our economy, trade and agriculture." <br />
The Imam's Arrest <br />
This crushing speech caused the Shah to fly into a rage. On the night of the 15th of Khordad, troops besieged Qom and rushed to the Imam's home and took him to Tehran where they held him in custody in the Qasr prison. He was later transferred to the Ishrat Abad Garrison. The next day the people in Qom took to the streets and led by Haj-Mustafa Khomeini, the Imam's son, shouted the slogan: "Either Death or Khomeini!". In Tehran the people demonstrated, shouting for his immediate release from prison. The bazaar and the university in Tehran were closed down. Troops opened fire on the people; casualties were heavy. Despite the security crackdown, the next day, (the 16th of Khordad), there were again demonstrations in Tehran in support of Imam Khomeini. In many other cities and towns of Iran the people went out on strike. There was no casualty list available, but some 15,000 and 400 people were reported killed in Tehran and in Qom respectively. <br />
The atrocities of the Shah's martial law during these days and the support the masses gave Imam Khomeini were reflected in the foreign press. Although the western press, especially the imperialist papers, have never been able or willing to appreciate the struggles of the oppressed people of the world to rid themselves of the yoke of Colonialism, the 15th of Khordad uprising and the leadership of Imam Khomeini made a great impression on them which could not be overlooked. <br />
The strike was broken and the bazaar reopened when the people received the news that the Imam was well and in good health. Nearly two months later, he was transferred from prison to SAVAK owned house in Davoodiyeh. This lessened public tension. <br />
After Imprisonment <br />
Nearing the first anniversary of the Faiziyyeh massacre, troops once again occupied Qom, but under strong public pressure, the Imam was released from prison and returned to Qom. His first speech delivered at Masjid Azam. <br />
"They call us reactionary. Certain foreign newspapers are bribed lavishly to say that we are adverse to all reforms and try to lead Iran back to the Middle Ages. The Ruhaniyat(Clergy) oppose the adversity the people suffer here. We want them to maintain the independence of the country. We do not want them to be humble servants of others. We do not oppose civilization nor does Islam. You have violated all laws, whether human or divine. The radio and television programs are nerve-shattering. The press poisons the minds of the youth. <br />
You have here military experts from Israel. You send Iranian students to Israel. We oppose all this. We do not oppose freedom for women, but we do not want women to be made-up dolls for the purposes of men. Your educational system is at the service of aliens." <br />
Besides disclosing the evil scheming of the Pahlavi regime, the Imam always urged the unity of Islamic nations against Zionism and imperialism. <br />
The Extraterritoriality Bill <br />
The puppet government of Mansour, the then Prime Minister, submitted the bill to the Majlis (the Lower House of the Iranian legislative branch of the government during the Pahlavi regime), which passed it. The Imam was soon informed of this treacherous act and in a speech he explained his reasons for opposing the bill. In less than ten minutes more than 40,000 copies of an announcement embodying the Imam's views were distributed by his supporters in Tehran. <br />
The Shah felt so threatened by the power of Ayatollah Khomeini that he arranged for his exile. <br />
The Imam's Life in Exile <br />
On the night of Aban 13, 1343 (November 1964) Qom was again occupied by troops. They arrested the Imam and drove him to Mehrabad Airport to send him into exile in Turkey. In the morning the people of Qom were not allowed to leave their homes and troops surrounded the houses of religious leaders. Haj Mustafa Khomeini was arrested and imprisoned in Tehran. He was likewise sent into exile in Turkey some two months later. <br />
Cables were sent to the Turkish Embassy in Tehran in support of the religious leadership. Meanwhile, Hassan Ali Mansour, who was responsible for the bill and the exile of the Imam, was assassinated by a member of the Fadaeiyeen-e Islam. <br />
The following letter was addressed to the UN Committee of Human Rights, dated April 1965: <br />
"We would like to draw your attention to the measures the UN might take against the policies of the Iranian government aimed at violating human rights. The matter has been given publicity in the New York Times, the Times and Le Monde issues of November 5. The religious leaders of Iran have been sent into exile as a 'security measure'. " <br />
The top religious figures are jailed and nearly all other leaders are under police surveillance at their homes. <br />
The exile of Imam Khomeini to Izmir, Turkey, is the worst of all violating Article 14 of the Constitution of Iran to the effect that no Iranian shall be sent into exile or forced to leave his residence to reside elsewhere, unless otherwise stipulated by the law. Charged with revolt, the Imam has been under police surveillance since 1962. So, how can he be guilty of later provocation? This is rather more important, taking into account the practice of the Turkish government to accept a religious leader of so considerable caliber in its territory and keep him under control. We shall appreciate your investigation into the merit of the case and your decision thereon as the UN Charter stipulates." <br />
The Turkish government under pressure was obliged to transfer the Imam to Iraq with collaboration of the Iranian regime. The Iraqi government agreed with such a transfer, provided that Iran had no right to intervene in the Imam's fate, freedom of activities of length of his exile in Iraq. <br />
Exile to Iraq <br />
The Imam lived in exile in Turkey only for a short period during which he was engaged in writing books. In Najaf, Iraq, he resumed his activities, but in an announcement he pointed out that the resumption of his activities should not be considered as termination of his exile and the public should be enlightened accordingly. They were! For fifteen years in exile, Imam Khomeini, wrote, spoke out, lectured, informed and amassed public fervor against tyrannical regime in Iran. He returned fifteen years later bringing the 'Dawn of an Islamic Revolution.' TV and radio stations, all over the world struggled to accommodate the influx of news that was coming from Iran; the Imam has returned. Some quoted thousands had gone to meet him and others, hundreds of thousands, but the truth is that millions thronged to receive the Imam when he landed on home ground. <br />
Immediately after his triumphant return he addressed the millionic throng at Behesht-e-Zahra cemetery. The following area excerpt s from his speech ..... "We have suffered many disasters ..... but during this period, big disasters but great victories have also been achieved ..... I cannot compensate for all the damage done to this nation .... I lost everything. May God the Almighty reward it ... Muhammad Reza Pahlavi has gone ..... He fled after destroying everything... He ruined our country and made our cemeteries flourish..... Our agriculture is Wiped out..... He kept our culture in a backward state... We have had universities for more than fifty years..... Due to treason committed against us however, there has been no human development..... . <br />
"As regards oil, it has been given totally to foreigners whether to America or other countries.....If. God forbid, that man had remained on the throne for several more year.' our oil reserves would have been exhausted... The blood of our young has been shed for these same causes and for freedom... We want a strong country with a stable and powerful system. We do not seek to reverse the system totally, in fact we want to maintain it, only let it be based on. and in the service of the people." <br />
Imam Khomeini has been true to his words. Since the ousting of the Pahlavi regime and the establishment of an Islamic Republic in Iran, the government has acted towards the benefit of the people themselves. The system of Islamic government in Iran has not been estranged from the people in any way and has enjoyed their full support. Development activities, under the circumstances have achieved wonders far beyond the realms of expectation, and the support of the people when fighting against the despotic regime of Iraq which imposed war upon them serves to show that their faith in the Imam's guidance and the grace of Allah shall never flounder. <br />
The Islamic Republic of Iran, having followed the guidance of Imam Khomeini, now has a strong and powerful system both at the national and international level. Islamic tenets and laws are referred to when policies and decisions are made in government and this at all times ensures that any activities or proposals carried out are in the interest of the people. The nations of the world shall be envied in future Years, for having lived through this era of transition of the Islamic Revolution, for having experienced its glorious 'Dawn' led by the most honorable Imam Khomeini. <br />
Contrary to the views expressed by the Western media. The people of Iran have gained a new respect and dignity. They can proudly say that what they have is self-achieved that their modest dress is proper and is their cultural identity (and not an outdated custom), and that their values are Islamic and pure. <br />
Imam Khomeini returned to Iran, from exile and brought with him the 'Dawn of the Islamic Revolution,' but now the light of the full sun shines from the faces of those who have followed his guidance and accepted the tenets of Islam. The Islamic Republic of Iran like a beacon shines out across the globe and embraces the oppressed.<br />
<br />
sourches: http://www.jafariyanews.com/articles/30khomeni.htm </div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-69618733193819193192011-11-24T03:31:00.000-08:002011-11-24T03:31:54.338-08:00Hadith Studies in Fazlur Rahman Perspective<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.indianbooks.co.in/bookmart/images/thumbnails/18/150/58972.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://www.indianbooks.co.in/bookmart/images/thumbnails/18/150/58972.png" /></a></div><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">STUDY</span> <span class="hps">Hadith</span> <span class="hps">Fazlur Rahman</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps atn">(</span><span>reviews</span> <span class="hps">of</span> <span class="hps">books</span> <span class="hps">Fazlur</span> <span class="hps">Rahman</span><span>, Islamic</span> <span class="hps">Methodology</span> <span class="hps">in History</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">Karachi</span><span>:</span> <span class="hps">Central</span> <span class="hps">Institute of</span> <span class="hps">Islamic</span> <span class="hps">Research,</span> <span class="hps">1965)</span></span><br />
<br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="1.">1. </span><span title="Pendahuluan">Preliminary<br />
</span><span title="Pada mulanya, Fazlur Rahman, seorang intelektual neo-modernis, merasakan kegelisahan akademik, yang juga dirasakan oleh banyak kalangan Muslim, yaitu tertutupnya rapat-rapat pintu ijtihad, sehingga yang terjadi adalah stagnasi intelektual yang luar biasa di kalangan umat Islam.">At first, Fazlur Rahman, a neo-modernist intellectual, academic feel anxiety, which is also perceived by many Muslims, namely the closed-door meetings of ijtihad, so that there is a remarkable intellectual stagnation among Muslims. </span><span title="Penutupan pintu ijtihad ini, secara logis mengarahkan kepada kebutuhan terhadap taqlid, suatu istilah yang pada umumnya diartikan sebagai penerimaan bi la kaifa terhjadap doktrin madzab-madzab dan otoritas-ororitas yang telah mapan.">Closure of the door of ijtihad is, logically lead to the need for taqlid, a term that is generally interpreted as acceptance of the doctrine of bi la Kaifa terhjadap-madhhab and the madhhab-ororitas authority that has been established.<br />
</span><span title="Kegelisahan Rahman berikutnya adanya fenomena di kalangan pembaharu Islam yang dalam melakukan pembaharu umumnya metode yang digunakan dalam menangani isu-isu legal masih bertumpu pada pendekatan yang ad hoc dan terpilah-pilah (fragmented) dengan mengeksploitasi prinsip takhayyur serta talfiq.">Anxiety next Rahman phenomenon among Islamic reformer in doing reformer is generally the method used in dealing with legal issues still based on ad hoc approaches and-separated (fragmented) by exploiting the principle of takhayyur and talfiq. </span><span title="Penerapan metode ini tentu saja menghasilkan pranata-pranata hukum yang serampangan, arbriter dan self contra-dictory.">Application of this method certainly produces legal institutions are haphazard, arbriter and self-contra dictory.<br />
</span><span title="Studi Fazlur Rahman terhadap hadis memiliki arti yang sangat penting terhadap pembaharuan pemikiran Islam, khususnya sumbangannya dalam bidang metode dan pendekatan.">The study of Hadith Fazlur Rahman has a very important meaning to the renewal of Islamic thought, especially its contribution in the field of methods and approaches. </span><span title="Pendekatan historis yang ia tawarkan adalah kontribusi positif terhadap studi hadis yang selama ini disibukkan oleh studi sanad, yang menutrut ia, walau memberi informasi biografis yang kaya, tetapi tidak dapat dijadikan argumentasi positif yang final.">The historical approach is that he offers a positive contribution to the study of traditions that had been occupied by the study sanad, which menutrut he, though giving a rich biographical information, but can not be positive that the final argument. </span><span title="Umat Islam dewasa ini, menurut Rahman, membutuhkan upaya yang metodologis untuk mencairkan kembali hadis-hadis yang ada ke dalam bentuk sunnah yang hidup (living sunnah) melalui studi historis terhadapnya.">Muslims today, according to Rahman, requires a methodological attempt to melt back the traditions that exist in the form of a living Sunnah (sunnah living) through historical study of it.<br />
</span><span title="Fazlur Rahman telah menelaah karya-karya intelektual sebelunya yang terkait dengan studi hadis, antara lain Ignaz Goldziher, Margoliouth, H.">Fazlur Rahman has reviewed sebelunya intellectual works associated with the study of hadith, among others, Ignaz Goldziher, Margoliouth, H. </span><span title="Lammens, dan Joseph Schacht.">Lammens, and Joseph Schacht. </span><span title="Ruang lingkup studi Rahman adalah hadis yang dimulai kajiannya dari konsep-konsep sunnah pada awal sejarah Islam sampai formalisasi hadis, serta menawarkan sebuah pendekatan historis dalam studi tersebut.">Rahman is the scope of the study of hadith which began its study of the concepts of Sunnah in the early history of Islam until the formalization of tradition, and offers a historical approach in the study. </span><span title="Maka kata kuncinya adalah sunnah yang hidup (living sunnah), idea moral ( ratio legis), dan legal spesifik.">Then said the key is the sunnah of the living (living sunnah), the moral idea (ratio legislators), and specific legal.<br />
</span><span title="Studi hadis Fazlur Rahman memberikan beberapa kontribusi yaitu pengetahuan baru tentang metode kritik terhadap hadis, memberi jalan alternatif atas kebekuan metodologis pemikiran Islam, khususnya pemikiran hukum Islam yang selama ini mensandarkan diri pada bangunan metodologis ulama madzab yang beraroma formalistik, skripturalistik dan atomistik, dan memberi sumbangan">Hadith Fazlur Rahman's study provides some contribution of new knowledge about the methods of criticism of the Hadith, gives an alternative way of methodological rigidity of Islamic thought, especially the Islamic legal thought during this mensandarkan ourselves on building a flavorful methodological scholars madhhab formalistic, scripturalistic and atomistic, and contribute </span><span title="signifikan untuk merekonstruksi metode-metode istinbath sehingga lebih feasible terhadap tantang jaman.">significantly to reconstruct istinbath methods so that more feasible to challenge the era.<br />
</span><span title="Fazlur Rahman mengawali penulisannya dengan memaparkan secara singkat kegelisahan intelektualnya tentang kondisi real umat Islam yang terbelenggu dengan tertutupnya pintu ijtihad..">Fazlur Rahman started writing by describing briefly the intellectual anxiety about the real condition of Muslims is bound by the closed doors of ijtihad .. </span><span title="Selanjutnya Rahman menguraikan evolusi historis hadis dari perkembangan awal hadis di masa Nabi.Pada akhirnya Rahman menawarkan metodologi dalam studi hadis untuk mengembalikan kembali hadis menjadi sunnah yang hidup (living sunnah) melalui pendekatan historis yang dipadu dengan pendekatan sosiologis.">Furthermore, Rahman describes the historical evolution of the early development of hadith Hadith in the last Nabi.Pada Rahman offers a methodology in the study of hadith hadith to return back into the living Sunnah (sunnah living) through a historical approach that combined with the sociological approach.<br />
</span><span title="2.">2. </span><span title="Problem (Kegelisahan Akademik)">Problem (Academic Anxiety)<br />
</span><span title="Bermula dari kegelisahan paling mendasar dari seorang intelektual neo-modernis, Fazlur Rahman, yang pasti juga dirasakan oleh banyak kalangan Muslim, yaitu kondisi di mana kaum Muslim telah menutup rapat-rapat pintu ijtihad, sehingga yang terjadi adalah stagnasi intelektual yang luar biasa.">Starting from the most basic anxiety of a neo-modernist intellectual, Fazlur Rahman, who would also be felt by many Muslims, a condition in which the Muslims had sealed the door of ijtihad, so that there is a remarkable intellectual stagnation. </span><span title="Rahman merasakan situasi ini sangat tidak kondosif untuk mengetengahkan Islam sebagai agama alternatif di tengah gelombang perubahan zaman yang kian dinamis.">Rahman feel this situation is not kondosif to present Islam as an alternative religion in the wake of an increasingly dynamic changing times.<br />
</span><span title="Tertutupnya pintu ijtihad telah mematikan kreatifitas intelektual umat yang pada awal-awal sejarah umat Islam tumbuh begitu luar biasa.">Closing of the door of ijtihad has been shut down that race of intellectual creativity in the early history of Muslims grew so extraordinary. </span><span title="Pada akhirnya Islam menjadi seperangkat doktrin yang beku dan tentu sulit untuk tampil memberi jawaban-jawaban atas problem keummatan di tengah gelombang modernitas.">Eventually Islam became a frozen set of doctrines and of course it is difficult to appear to give answers to problems keummatan in the wake of modernity. </span><span title="Penutupan pintu ijtihad ini, secara logis mengarahkan kepada kebutuhan terhadap taqlid, suatu istilah yang pada umumnya diartikan sebagai penerimaan bi la kaifa terhjadap doktrin madzab-madzab dan otoritas-ororitas yang telah mapan.">Closure of the door of ijtihad is, logically lead to the need for taqlid, a term that is generally interpreted as acceptance of the doctrine of bi la Kaifa terhjadap-madhhab and the madhhab-ororitas authority that has been established. </span><span title="Dalam memberlakukan sumber ajaran Islam – al-Qur'an dan Sunnah nabi – umat Islam mengembangkan suatu sikap yang kaku lewat pendekatan-pendekatan ahistoris, literalistis dan atomistis.">In enacting the source of the teachings of Islam - the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the prophet - Muslims developed a rigid attitude by ahistorical approaches, literalistis and atomistic.<br />
</span><span title="Situasi seperti itu segera memancing reaksi dari para pembaharu Muslim untuk melakukan langkah-langkah “penyelamatan” terhadap ajaran Islam yang kian keropos oleh sejarah.">Such a situation provoked immediate reaction from the Muslim reformers to take steps "rescue" of the teachings of Islam which is increasingly porous by history. </span><span title="Akan tetapi – sebagaimana disaksikan oleh Fazlur Rahman -, mereka dalam melakukan pembaharuan umumnya metode yang digunakan dalam menangani isu-isu legal masih bertumpu pada pendekatan yang ad hoc dan terpilah-pilah (fragmented) dengan mengeksploitasi prinsip takhayyur serta talfiq.">However - as witnessed by Fazlur Rahman -, they are in doing renewal is generally the method used in dealing with legal issues still based on ad hoc approaches and-separated (fragmented) by exploiting the principle of takhayyur and talfiq. </span><span title="Penerapan metode ini tentu saja menghasilkan pranata-pranata hukum yang serampangan, arbriter dan self contra-dictory.">Application of this method certainly produces legal institutions are haphazard, arbriter and self-contra dictory. </span><span title="Memungut fragmen-fragmen opini masa lampau yang terisolasi – tanpa mempertimbangkan latar kesejarahannya – kemudian menyusunnya ke dalam sejenis mosaik yang tidak semena-mena dengan menyelundupkan di bawah permukaannya sebagai struktur ide yang dipinjam dari Barat – tanpa mempertimbangkan kontradiksi atau inkonsistensi – jelas merupakan pembaharuan yang artifisial">Picked up fragments of the past an isolated opinion - regardless of background kesejarahannya - then compile them into a kind of mosaic that is not arbitrary by smuggling under the surface as a structure of ideas borrowed from the West - without considering the contradictions or inconsistencies - is clearly a renewal of an artificial </span><span title="dan tidak realistis.">and unrealistic. </span><span title="Itulah sebabnya, seorang Josept Schacht menegaskan : “Yurispridensi dan legislasi Islam kaum modernis, agar dapat bersifat logis dan permanen, tengah membutuhkan suatu basis teoritis yang lebih tegar dan konsisten”.[1]">That is why, a Josept Schacht asserts: "Yurispridensi and modernist Islamic legislation, in order to be logical and permanent, were in need of a theoretical base that is more rigid and consistent". [1]<br />
</span><span title="Dalam iklim pembaharuan yang lesu semacam ini munculah Fazlur Rahman dengan menawarkan seperangkat metodologi yang sitematis dan komprehensif, khususnya yang terkait dengan penggalian terhadap sumber-sumber ajaran Islam, yakni al-Qur'an dan sunnah Nabi.">In a climate of sluggish reforms of this kind comes the Fazlur Rahman by offering a set of methodologies and comprehensive skewering, especially those associated with the excavation of the sources of Islamic teachings, namely the Qur'an and Sunnah. </span><span title="Tawaran Rahman dalam kajian hadis dengan menekankan pada pendekatan historis telah memberi angin segar terhadap arah pembaharuan ajaran Islam yang lebih paradigmatis.">Bids Rahman in hadith studies with emphasis on the historical approach has given a fresh wind of renewal toward a more paradigmatic Islamic teachings.<br />
</span><span title="3.">3. </span><span title="Pentingnya Topik Penelitian">Importance of Research Topics<br />
</span><span title="Studi Fazlur Rahman terhadap hadis memiliki arti yang sangat penting terhadap pembaharuan pemikiran Islam, khususnya sumbangannya dalam bidang metode dan pendekatan.">The study of Hadith Fazlur Rahman has a very important meaning to the renewal of Islamic thought, especially its contribution in the field of methods and approaches. </span><span title="Pendekatan historis yang ia tawarkan adalah kontribusi positif terhadap studi hadis yang selama ini disibukkan oleh studi sanad, yang menutrut ia, walau memberi informasi biografis yang kaya, tetapi tidak dapat dijadikan argumentasi positif yang final.">The historical approach is that he offers a positive contribution to the study of traditions that had been occupied by the study sanad, which menutrut he, though giving a rich biographical information, but can not be positive that the final argument.<br />
</span><span title="Umat Islam dewasa ini, menurut Rahman, membutuhkan upaya yang metodologis untuk mencairkan kembali hadis-hadis yang ada ke dalam bentuk sunnah yang hidup (living sunnah) melalui studi historis terhadapnya.">Muslims today, according to Rahman, requires a methodological attempt to melt back the traditions that exist in the form of a living Sunnah (sunnah living) through historical study of it. </span><span title="Upaya itu perlu, untuk memilahkan dalam kandungan hadis sisi-sisi normativitas dari sisi-sisi historisitasnya, sehingga muncul gagasan idea moral hadis yang dapat dijadikan sebagai basis etika dalam mengembangkan formula baru ajaran Islam yang adaptatif terhadap perkembangan jaman.">The effort was necessary, to differentiate the content of the hadith normativity sides of the sides of historicity, so the idea came the idea of moral tradition which can be used as a basis of ethics in developing a new formula that adaptatif Islamic teachings against changing times.<br />
</span><span title="Untuk selanjutnya, tidak berlebihan jika apa yang Fazlur Rahman tawarkan merupakan prinsip-prinsip yang tidak hanya berguna bagi yurispridensi Islam, tetapi juga bagi keseluruhan pemikiran Islam.">Henceforth, not too much if what Fazlur Rahman to offer are principles that are not only useful for yurispridensi Islam, but also for the whole of Islamic thought.</span><span title="4.">4. </span><span title="Hasil Penelitian Terdahulu">Past Research<br />
</span><span title="Studi Fazlur Rahman tentang hadis merupakan respon terhadap kontroversi yang berkepanjangan mengenai sunnah dan hadis di Pakistan, dan terhadap situasi kesarjanaan Barat.">The study of Hadith Fazlur Rahman is a response to a prolonged controversy about the Sunnah and Hadith in Pakistan, and the situation of Western scholarship. </span><span title="Di bawah ini adalah gambaran secara singkat situasi kesarjanaan Barat terkait dengan konsep sunnah dan hadis.">Below is a brief overview of Western scholarship situation associated with the concept of Sunnah and Hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Ignaz Goldziher dapat dikatakan sebagai sarjana Barat pertama yang melakukan studi kritis hadis.">Ignaz Goldziher arguably the first Western scholar to conduct a critical study of hadith. </span><span title="Dalam karya munomentalnya, Muhammadanische Studien (vol. 2, 1890), ia mengemukakan bahwa fenomena hadis berasal dari zaman Islam yang paling awal.">In the work munomentalnya, Muhammadanische Studien (vol. 2, 1890), he argued that the phenomenon of Islamic tradition from the earliest times. </span><span title="Akan tetapi karena kandungan hadis yang terus membengkak pada masa-masa selanjutnya, dan karena dalamsetiap generasi Muslim materi hadis berjalan pararel dengan doktrin-doktrin aliran fiqih dan teologi yang seringkali saling bertabrakan, maka Goldziher menilai sangat sulit menemukan hadis-hadis yang orisinil berasal dari Nabi">However, because the content of tradition that continues to swell in the later period, and because dalamsetiap generation of Muslim hadith material running parallel to the doctrines of the flow of jurisprudence and theology that often collide with each other, then the judge Goldziher very difficult to find the original traditions from the Prophet </span><span title=".[2]">[2].<br />
</span><span title="Margoliouth dalam Early Development of Islam, mengemukakan bahwa Nabi Muhammad sama sekali tidak meninggalkan sunnah ataupun hadis, dan bahwa sunnnah yang dipraktekkan kaum Muslim awal sama sekali bukan merupakan sunnah Nabi, melainkan kebiasaan-kebiasaan bangsa Arab pra-Islam yang telah dimodifikasi al-Qur'">Margoliouth in Early Development of Islam, argued that the Prophet Muhammad did not leave the Sunnah or Hadith, and that sunnnah practiced early Muslims did not constitute the Sunnah of the Prophet, but the habits of pre-Islamic Arabs that have been modified al-Qur ' </span><span title="an.">an. </span><span title="Margoliuoth juka mengemukakan bahwa dalam rangka memberikan otoritas dan normativitas terhadap kebiasaan-kebiasaan tersebut, kaum Muslim pada abad kedua Hijriyah telah mengembangkan kosep sunnah Nabi dan menciptakan mekanisme hadis untuk merealisasikan konsep tersebut.[3]">Margoliuoth juka argues that in order to provide authority and normativity of these habits, the Muslims in the second century AH has developed kosep Sunnah and Hadith to create mechanisms to realize the concept. [3]<br />
</span><span title="H.">H. </span><span title="Lammens, dalam bukunya Islam ; Beliefs and Institutions, memperlihatkan pandangan yang sama dengan Margoliouth dan menyatakan dengan singkat bahwa praktek sunnah pasti sudah mendahului perumusannya dalam hadis.[4]">Lammens, in his book Islam: Beliefs and Institutions, shows the same view with Margoliouth and stated briefly that the practice of Sunnah must have preceded the formulation in the hadith. [4]<br />
</span><span title="Joseph Schacht dalam bukunya The Origin of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, menyatakan – sebagaimana Margoliuth – bahwa konsep sunnah Nabi merupakan kreasi kaum Muslim belakangan.">Joseph Schacht in his book The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, stated - as Margoliuth - that the concept of Sunnah Muslims are recent creations. </span><span title="Menurutnya sunnah mencerminkan kebiasan tradisional masyarakat yang membentuk “tradisi yang hidup” dan “tradisi yang hidup” itu adanya mendahului hadis (tradisi Nabi), Ketika hadis pertama kali beredar – sekitar menjelang abad kedua hijriyah – ia tidak dirujukkan kepada Nabi, tetapi pertama-tama">According to the Sunnah reflects the traditional custom of the people who form the "living tradition" and "living tradition" that precedes the hadith (traditions of the Prophet), when tradition was first circulated - about ahead of the second Hijri century - he was not referred to the Prophet, but first </span><span title="kepada tabi'in, baru pada tahap berikutnya, dirujukkan kepada sahabat dan Nabi.[5]">to tabi'in, just at a later stage, referred to the Companions and the Prophet. [5]<br />
</span><span title="Dalam kajiannya mengenai sunnah dan hadis, Rahman memang mengkonfirmasi temuan-temuan atau teori-teori para sarjana Barat tentang hal itu, tetapi dia tidak sepakat dengan teori mereka bahwa konsep sunnah merupakan kreasi kaum Muslim yang belakangan.">In her study of the Sunnah and Hadith, Rahman did confirm the findings or theories of Western scholars about it, but he did not agree with their theory that the concept is the creation of the Muslim Sunnah later. </span><span title="Bagi Rahman, konsep Sunnah Nabi merupakan “konsep yang shahih dan operatif sejak awal Islam dan tetap demikian sepanjang masa”.[6] Dan dari sinilah posisi unik Rahman di antara pemikir-pemikir Barat yang telah terlebih dahulu melakukan studi terhadap hadis.">For Rahman, the concept of Sunnah is "the authentic concept and operative since the beginning of Islam and remained so throughout the period". [6] And from where Rahman's unique position among Western thinkers who have first conducted a study of hadith. </span><span title="Rahman tidak apriori terhadap eksistensi hadis dalam hasanah pemikiran Islam, tetapi juga tidak menerima begitu saja teori resmi dan baku tentang hadis yang terwadahi dalam ulumul hadis versi ulama-ulama hadis.">Rahman is not a priori the existence hasanah tradition in Islamic thinking, but also do not blindly accept the official theory about the traditions and raw materials which are embodied in the hadith Ulumul version of the hadith scholars. </span><span title="Dan yang terpenting dalam studi Rahman terhadap hadis adalah, bagaimana ia menawarkan pandekatan dan metode baru dalam memahami dan mengoperasikan hadis dalam khasanah intelektual Muslim dewasa ini.">And most importantly in Rahman's study of hadith is, how it offers pandekatan and new methods in understanding and operating the Muslim intellectual tradition in contemporary repertoire.<br />
</span><span title="5.">5. </span><span title="Kerangka Teori dan Pendekatan">Theory Framework and Approach<br />
</span><span title="Secara garis besar, menurut Fazlur Rahman, sunnah Nabi lebih tepat jika dipandang sebagai sebuah konsep pengayoman (a general umbrella concept) dari pada bahwa ia mempunyai sebuah kandungan khusus yang bersifat spesifik secara mutlak.">Broadly speaking, according to Fazlur Rahman, the Sunnah of the Prophet is more appropriate if seen as a concept aegis (a general umbrella concept) rather than that he has a special content that is absolutely specific. </span><span title="Alasannya adalah bahwa secara teoritik dapat disimpulkan langsung dari kenyataan bahwa sunnah adalah sebuah terma perilaku (behavioral term), oleh karena di dalam prakteknya tidak ada dua buah kasus yang benar-benar sama latar belakang situasionalnya secara moral, psikologis dan material, maka sunnah tersebut harus">The reason is that theoretically can be inferred directly from the fact that the sunnah is a terms of behavior (behavioral terms), because in practice no two cases are exactly the same background situasionalnya moral, psychological and material, then the Sunnah should be </span><span title="dapat diinterpretasikan dan diadaptasikan.">can be interpreted and adapted. </span><span title="Sunnah Nabi, demikian tegas Rahman, merupakan petunjuk arah (pointer in the direction) dari pada serangkaian peraturan-peraturan yang telah ditetapkan secara pasti (an exactly laid-out series of rulers).[7]">Sunnah is so firmly Rahman, an indication of the direction (pointer in the direction) of the series of regulations that have been determined with certainty (an exactly laid-out series of rulers). [7]<br />
</span><span title="Berdasarkan asumsi itu, Rahman mengintrodusir teorinya tentang penafsiran situasional terhadap hadis.">Based on that assumption, Rahman introduced his theory of situational interpretation of the hadith. </span><span title="Ia menegaskan bahwa kebutuhan kaum Muslim dewasa ini adalah melakukan revaluasi terhadap aneka ragam unsur-unsur di dalam hadis dan reinterpretasi dengan sempurna terhadap hadis sesuai dengan kondisi-kondisi moral-sosial yang sudah berubah pada masa kini.">He asserted that the needs of Muslims today are revalued on a variety of elements in the hadith and the reinterpretation of tradition perfectly in accordance with the conditions of moral-social that has changed in the present. </span><span title="Hal ini hanya dapat dilakukan melalui pendekatan historis dalam studi hadis, yakni mengembalikan hadis menjadi “sunnah yang hidup” dan dengan membedakan secara tegas nilai-nilai nyata yang dikandungnya dari latar belakang situasionalnya.[8]">This can only be done through a historical approach in the study of hadith, which returns the hadith to be "living sunnah," and to distinguish clearly the real values of the background contains situasionalnya. [8]<br />
</span><span title="Penafsiran situasional tersebut, menurut Rahman, akan menjelaskan bahwa beberapa doktrin keagamaan harus dimodifikasi dan ditegaskan kembali, seperti masalah determinisme dan free-will (karsa bebas) manusia yang tercermin dalam hadis-hadis.">Situational interpretation, according to Rahman, will explain that some religious doctrine should be modified and reaffirmed, as the problem of determinism and free-will (intention-free) human being is reflected in the traditions. </span><span title="Hadis-hadis ini harus ditafsirkan menurut perspektif historisnya dan menurut fungsinya yang tepat dalam konteks kesejarahan.">These traditions must be interpreted according to its historical perspective and functions according to the proper historical context. </span><span title="Penafsiran situasional yang sama, menurut Rahman, juga harus dilakukan terhadap hadis-hadis hukum.">The same situational interpretation, according to Rahman, also be made to the legal traditions. </span><span title="Hadis-hadis ini, demikian harus dipandang sebagai suatu masalah yang harus ditinjau kembali (a problem to be re-treated) dan bukan dipandang sebagai hukum yang sudah jadi yang dapat secara langsung dipergunakan (a ready-made law).[9]">These traditions, so should be viewed as a problem that must be revisited (a problem to be re-treated) and not seen as a ready-made laws which can be directly used (a ready-made law). [9]<br />
</span><span title="Pendekatan historis dalam “penafsiran situasional” ala Fazlur Rahman mengisyaratkan adanya beberapa langkah strategis.">Historical approach in the "interpretation of situational" style Fazlur Rahman suggested the existence of several strategic steps. </span><span title="Pertama, memahami makna teks Nabi kemudian memahami latar belakang situasionalnya, yakni menyangkut situasi Nabi dan masyarakat pada periode nabi secara umum (asbab al-wurud makro), termasuk di sini pula sebab-sebab munculnya hadis (asbab al-wurud mikro).">First, understand the meaning of the text of the Prophet and then understand the background situasionalnya, namely the Prophet and the public regarding the situation in the period of the prophets in general (al-wurud asbab macro), including here also the causes of the emergence of Hadith (al-wurud asbab micro). </span><span title="Di samping itu juga memahami petunjuk-petunjuk al-Qur'an yang relevan.">In addition also understand the instructions of the Qur'an that are relevant. </span><span title="Hal ini penting, karena Rahman memandang bahwa kreterium penilai yang handal untuk otentisitas pemaknaan hadis adalah dua hal, yakni sejarah dan al-Qur'an.">This is important, because Rahman's view that a reliable kreterium appraisers for the authenticity of the hadith is the meaning of two things, namely history and the Koran. </span><span title="Dari langkah ini dapat dipahami dan dibedakan nilai-nilai nyata atau sasaran hukumnya (ratio legis) dari ketetapan legal spesifiknya, dan dengan demikian dapat dirumuskan prinsip idea moral dari hadis tersebut.">From this step can be understood and differentiated values of real or legal target (ratio legislators) of specific legal provisions, and thus can be formulated the principle of the moral idea of the hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Langkah berikutnya adalah penumbuhan kembali hukumnya, yakni prinsip idea moral yang didapat tersebut diaplikasikan dan diadaptasikan dalam latar sosiologis dewasa ini.">The next step is to re-growth law, namely the idea of moral principles derived are applied and adapted in today's sociological background. </span><span title="Inilah yang dimaksud Rahman dengan “pencairan” hadis menjadi “sunnah yang hidup”.">This is what Rahman meant by "melting" hadith to be "living sunnah". </span><span title="Dengan demikian, penafsiran situasional Rahman ini mengkombinasikan pendekatan historis dengan pendekatan sosiologis.">Thus, the interpretation of situational Rahman combines a historical approach to the sociological approach.<br />
</span><span title="Contoh operasi metodologis pendekatan historis dalam studi hadis yang ditawarkan Fazlur Rahman dapat ditemukan dalam uraiannya tentang riba dalam bukunya Islamic Methodology in History sebagai berikut :">Examples of methodological approach to historical operations in the study of Hadith Fazlur Rahman offered can be found in his account of usury in his book Islamic Methodology in History, as follows:<br />
</span><span title="Al-Qur'an … menjelaskan alasan yang sesungguhnya di balik pelarangan riba dengan mengatakan bahwa riba tidak dapat didefinisikan sebagai suatu transaksi komersial karena ia merupakan suatu proses yang dengannya modal berlipat ganda secara tidak wajar.">Al-Quran ... to explain the real reason behind the prohibition of usury by saying that usury can not be defined as a commercial transaction because it is a process by which capital multiplied improperly. </span><span title="Hadis historis mengkonfirmasi hal ini dengan memberi informasi kepada kita behwa riba, dalam kenyataannya, merupakan praktek orang-orang Arab pra-Islam.">Historical Hadith confirm this by informing us behwa usury, in fact, is the practice of pre-Islamic Arabs. </span><span title="Tetapi kita telah melihat ketegasan moral yang dengannya opini legal telah memasukkan berbagai aktivitas dalam definisi riba dengan merumuskan suatu prinsip umum bahwa “setiap pinjaman yang memberi keutungan kepada kreditur adalah riba”.">But we have seen the moral firmness with which the legal opinion has incorporated a variety of activities within the definition of usury by formulating a general principle that "every loan that gives keutungan to the lender is riba". </span><span title="Dalam nada yang sama dikatakan bahwa riba secara eksklusif berlaku terhadap bahan-bahan makanan, emas, dan perak, serta tidak berlaku terhadap hal-hal lainnya.">In the same vein said that usury is exclusively applicable to foodstuffs, gold, and silver, and shall not apply to other things. </span><span title="Ini secara tegas menyiratkan arti bahwa, sebagai contohnya, sejumlah kapas boleh dipinjamkan dengan perjanjian bahwa enam bulan kemudian ia harus dikembalikan dalam jumlah yang lebih banyak selaras dengan kehendak kreditor.">This explicitly implies that, for example, a number of cotton may be loaned with the agreement that six months later he had returned in greater numbers in harmony with the will of creditors. </span><span title="Hal semacam ini, tentu saja, bertentangan dengan prinsip umum yang baru saja dikutip.">This sort of thing, of course, contrary to the general principle just quoted. </span><span title="Keseluruhan perkembangan ini menunjukkan bahwa yang hendak diformulasikan secara kaku adalah penafsiran moral yang progresif terhadap larangan al-Qur'an tersebut.">Overall this development which would indicate that the rigidly formulated is a progressive interpretation of the moral prohibition against the Koran. </span><span title="Sudah barang tentu kita tidak bisa menerima penafsiran yang moral-legal yang spesifik ini dalam segala situasi dan kondisi.">Of course we can not accept the interpretation that the specific moral-legal in all circumstances and conditions. </span><span title="Lebih lanjut, bahwa bunga bank dewasa ini secara sah dicakup oleh definisi perdagangan sulit untuk disangkal.">Further, the interest banks today are legally covered by the definition of trafficking is difficult to deny. </span><span title="Ahli-ahli ekonomi dan moneter sajalah yang dapat menentukan apakan bank tanpa bunga dapat berfungsi atau tidak.">Economists and monetary policies alone can determine whether an interest-free banks can function or not. </span><span title="Jika dapat berfungsi, syukurlah.">If it works, thank goodness. </span><span title="Tetapi jika tidak, maka menegaskan bahwa (sistem) perbankan komersial dewasa ini – denagn perekonomian yang amat terkontrol – masuk dalam larangan al-Qur'an dan sunnah Nabi sama sekali tidak menunjukkan kejujuran terhadap sejarah dan agama tetapi menunjukkan krisis kepercayaan manusia yang akut dan sinisme">But if not, then assert that the (system) commercial banking today - denagn a very controlled economy - included in the ban on the Qur'an and Sunnah did not show honesty to history and religion but shows humans the acute crisis of confidence and cynicism </span><span title="yang tak kenal kompromi.[10]">uncompromising. [10]<br />
</span><span title="Dalam contoh penafsiran hadis di atas, terlihat Rahman memandang hadis-hadis legal mengenai riba sebagai formulasi kaum Muslim belakangan, meski ia tidak merujuk secara langsung hadis-hadis tersebut.">In the example above hadith interpretation, see Rahman looked legal traditions on usury as the formulation of the Muslims later, although he did not directly refer to these traditions. </span><span title="Di sisi lain, terlihat bahwa penafsiran situasional terhadap hadis hukum – yang tentu saja dipandang olehnya sebagai interpretasi kreatif kaum Muslim awal terhadap sunnah ideal Nabi – didasarkan pada hadis historis dan norma moral al-Qur'an, dengan memperhatikan secara cermat kondisi kesejarahannya : “Hanya">On the other hand, it appears that situational interpretation of the legal traditions - which of course is regarded by him as a creative interpretation of the early Muslims towards the Prophet's sunnah ideal - based on historical traditions and moral norms of the Koran, with careful attention to conditions kesejarahannya: "Only </span><span title="dengan memahami latar belakang yang terdiri atas hal-hal yang telah diketahui secara pasti tentang Nabi dan Umat awal (di samping al-Qur'an), kita dapat menafirkan hadis hukum (teknis)”.[11]">to understand the background that consists of the things that have been known for certain about the Prophet and the People of the initial (in addition to al-Qur'an), we can menafirkan legal traditions (technical) ". [11]<br />
</span><span title="6.">6. </span><span title="Ruang Lingkup dan Istilah Kunci Penelitian">Scope and Research Key Terms<br />
</span><span title="Studi Fazlur Rahman ini ruang lingkupnya adalah hadis yang dimulai kajiannya dari konsep-konsep sunnah pada awal sejarah Islam sampai formalisasi hadis, serta menawarkan sebuah pendekatan historis dalam studi tersebut.">Fazlur Rahman's study of this scope is a tradition that began its study of the concepts of Sunnah in the early history of Islam until the formalization of tradition, and offers a historical approach in the study. </span><span title="Maka kata kunci yang digunakan oleh Fazlur Rahman antara lain : sunnah yang hidup (living sunnah), idea moral (ratio legis), dan legal spesifik.">Then the keywords used by Fazlur Rahman, among others: the living Sunna (sunna living), the moral idea (ratio legislators), and specific legal.<br />
</span><span title="7.">7. </span><span title="Kontribusi dalam Ilmu-Ilmu Keislaman">Contributions in Islamic Sciences<br />
</span><span title="Studi hadis Fazlur Rahman memberikan beberapa kontribusi terhadap pengembangan pemikiran Islam, antara lain ; Pertama, memberikan pengetahuan baru tentang metode kritik terhadap hadis yang selama ini didominasi oleh metode kritik sanad yang menjadi manhaj paling absah untuk menilai otentisitas hadis.">Hadith Fazlur Rahman's study provides some contribution to the development of Islamic thought, among other things: First, provide new knowledge about the methods of criticism of the tradition that had been dominated by the critical method manhaj sanad be most valid for assessing the authenticity of hadith. </span><span title="Kedua, memberi jalan alternatif atas kebekuan metodologis pemikiran Islam, khususnya pemikiran hukum Islam yang selama ini mensandarkan diri pada bangunan metodologis ulama madzab yang beraroma formalistik, skripturalistik dan atomistik.">Second, provide an alternative way of methodological rigidity of Islamic thought, especially the Islamic legal thought during this mensandarkan ourselves on building a flavorful methodological scholars madhhab formalistic, scripturalistic and atomistic. </span><span title="Ketiga, seluruh bangunan pemikiran Rahman, khususnya yang terkait dengan pemikiran atas sumber-sumber syari'ah, (al-Qur'an dan sunnah), adalah sumbangan signifikan untuk merekonstruksi metode-metode istinbath sehingga lebih feasible terhadap tantang jaman.">Third, the whole edifice of thought Rahman, particularly associated with the thinking of the sources of Shari'ah, (al-Qur'an and Sunnah), is a significant contribution to reconstruct the methods istinbath making it more feasible to challenge the era.<br />
</span><span title="8.">8. </span><span title="Logika dan Sistematika Penulisan">Logic of Writing and Systematic<br />
</span><span title="Fazlur Rahman memulai penulisan studi hadisnya di dalam karya yang sangat monumental, Islamic Methodology in History, dengan memaparkan secara singkat kegelisahan intelektualnya tentang kondisi real umat Islam yang terbelenggu dengan tertutupnya pintu ijtihad.">Fazlur Rahman started writing his Hadith studies in the work of a very monumental, Islamic Methodology in History, by describing briefly the intellectual anxiety about the real condition of Muslims is bound by the closed doors of ijtihad. </span><span title="Pemaparan sejenis secara lebih memadai penulis dapatkan di buku Rahman yang lain, misalnya, Islam and Modernity; Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition.">Similar exposure more adequately author Rahman get in other books, for example, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. </span><span title="Selanjutnya Rahman menguraikan evolusi historis hadis dari perkembangan awal hadis di masa Nabi, lalu munculah 'sunnah yang hidup' hingga masa tadwin (bahasa Rahman : formasilisasi hadis).">Furthermore, Rahman describes the historical evolution of tradition from the early development in the Prophet's hadith, then comes the 'sunnah who live' until the time of tadwin (Rahman Language: formasilisasi hadith). </span><span title="Ketika hadis belum diformalisasikan pada sekitar abad 2 Hijriyah, khasanah pemikiran Islam mengalami perkembangan yang dinamis dengan menerapkan pilar utama pemikiran Islam, yakni al-Qur'an, sunnah, ijtihad, dan ijma', akan tetapi, begitu tulis Rahman, ketika umat Islam memasuki">As tradition has not been formalized in the second century AH, treasures of Islamic thought has developed dynamically by applying the main pillars of Islamic thought, namely the Qur'an, sunnah, ijtihad, and ijma ', however, Rahman once wrote, when Muslims entered </span><span title="era formalisasi hadis (terjadi pergeseran dari sunnah ke hadis), yang terjadi adalah tertutupnya rapat-rapat intellectual exercise untuk mengaktualkan sunnah Nabi secara adil dan proporsional.">formalization era tradition (there was a shift from the Sunnah to the hadith), which happens is that the closed meetings of intellectual exercise to actualize the Sunnah of the Prophet in a fair and proportionate.<br />
</span><span title="Pada akhirnya Rahman menawarkan metodologi dalam studi hadis untuk mengembalikan kembali hadis menjadi sunnah yang hidup (living sunnah) melalui pendekatan historis yang dipadu dengan pendekatan sosiologis.">In the end, Rahman offers a methodology in the study of hadith hadith to return back into the living Sunnah (sunnah living) through a historical approach that combined with the sociological approach. </span><span title="Dalam pembahasan ini, Rahman juga menampilkan beberapa contoh hadis yang kemudian ia analisis berdasarkan metode dan pendekatan yang ia tawarkan sebelumnya.">In this discussion, Rahman also show some examples of traditions that later he analysis based on the method and approach that he had offered earlier. </span><span title="Dari sini dapat dilihat konsistensi pemikiran Rahman tentang hadis, baik dalam ranah ontologi, epistemologi, dan aksiologi.">From this it can be seen consistency Rahman thinking about the tradition, both in the realm of ontology, epistemology, and axiology.<br />
<br />
<br />
</span><span title="BIBLIOGRAFI">BIBLIOGRAPHY<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Fazlur Rahman, Islamic Methodology in History, Karachi : Central Institute of Islamic Research, 1965">Fazlur Rahman, Islamic Methodology in History, Karachi: Central Institute of Islamic Research, 1965<br />
<br />
</span><span title="____________, Islam, terj.">____________, Islam, trans. </span><span title="Ahsin Muhammad, Bandung ; Pustaka, 1984">Ahsin Muhammad, New York; Library, 1984<br />
</span><span title="____________, Islam and Modernity; Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition, Chicago ; The University of Chicago Press, 1982">____________, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1982<br />
</span><span title="Ignaz Golziher, Muslim Studies, terj.">Ignaz Golziher, Muslim Studies, trans. </span><span title="C.R.">C.R. </span><span title="Barber dan S.M.">Barber and S.M. </span><span title="Stern, London : Goerge Allen & Unwin, 1971">Stern, London: George Allen & Unwin, 1971<br />
</span><span title="Josept Schacht, The Origin of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, London : Oxfort at The Clarendon Press, 1971, h.">Josept Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence, London: Oxfort at The Clarendon Press, 1971, p. </span><span title="2-58, 80-189">2-58, 80-189<br />
</span><span title="Taufiq Adnan Amal, Islam dan Tantangan Modernitas : Studi Atas pemikiran Hukum Fazlur Rahman, Bandung : Mizan, 1994">Taufik Adnan Amal, Islam and the Challenges of Modernity: On the Study of Law thought Fazlur Rahman, Jakarta: Mizan, 1994</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-85347337029722964252011-11-24T03:23:00.000-08:002011-11-24T03:23:22.038-08:00Mulla Sadra, The Philosopher from Islam in Modern Era<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.jafariyanews.com/2k10_news/june/6mulla_sadra.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="231" src="http://www.jafariyanews.com/2k10_news/june/6mulla_sadra.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
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<em>Sadr al-Din al-Shirazi (Mulla Sadra) is perhaps the single most important and influential philosopher in the Muslim world in the last four hundred years. The author of over forty works, he was the culminating figure of the major revival of philosophy in Iran in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Devoting himself almost exclusively to metaphysics, he constructed a critical philosophy which brought together Peripatetic, Illuminationist and gnostic philosophy along with Shi'ite theology within the compass of what he termed a 'metaphilosophy', the source of which lay in the Islamic revelation and the mystical experience of reality as existence.</em><br />
<em> Mulla Sadra's metaphilosophy was based on existence as the sole constituent of reality, and rejected any role for quiddities or essences in the external world. Existence was for him at once a single unity and an internally articulated dynamic process, the unique source of both unity and diversity. From this fundamental starting point, Mulla Sadra was able to find original solutions to many of the logical, metaphysical and theological difficulties which he had inherited from his predecessors. His major philosophical work is the <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027WKENT1">Asfar (The Four Journeys)</a>, which runs to nine volumes in the present printed edition and is a complete presentation of his philosophical ideas.<br />
</em> <br />
<ol><li> <strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027SECT1">The primacy of existence</a></strong></li>
<li> <strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027SECT2">The systematic ambiguity of existence</a></strong></li>
<li> <strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027SECT3">Substantial motion</a></strong></li>
<li> <strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027SECT4">Epistemology</a></strong></li>
<li> <strong><a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027SECT5">Methodology</a></strong></li>
</ol><a href="" name="H027SECT1"><h3>1. The primacy of existence</h3></a> Sadr al-Din Muhammad ibn Ibrahim ibn Yahya al-Qawami al-Shirazi, known variously as Mulla Sadra, Sadr al-Muta'allihin, or simply Akhund, was born in Shiraz in central Iran in <span>ah</span> 979-80/<span>ad</span> 1571-2. He studied in Isfahan with, among others, <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H053.htm">Mir Damad</a> and Shaykh Baha' al-Din al-'Amili, Shaykh-e Baha'i, before retiring for a number of years of spiritual solitude and discipline in the village of Kahak, near Qum. Here he completed the first part of his major work, the <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027WKENT1">Asfar (The Four Journeys)</a>. He was then invited by Allah-wirdi Khan, the governor of Fars province, to return to Shiraz, where he taught for the remainder of his life. He died in Basra in <span>ah</span> 1050/<span>ad</span> 1640 while on his seventh pilgrimage on foot to Mecca.<br />
Safavid Iran witnessed a noteworthy revival of philosophical learning, and Mulla Sadra was this revival's most important figure. The Peripatetic (<i>mashsha'i</i>) philosophy of <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H026.htm">Ibn Sina</a> had been elaborated and invigorated at the beginning of the Mongol period by Nasir al-Din <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H036.htm">al-Tusi</a>, and there existed a number of important contributors to this school in the century before Mulla Sadra. Illuminationist (<i>ishraqi</i>) philosophy, originated by Shihab al-Din <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H031.htm">al-Suhrawardi</a>, had also been a major current (see <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H054.htm">Illuminationist philosophy</a>). The speculative mysticism of the Sufism of <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H022.htm">Ibn al-'Arabi</a> had also taken firm root in the period leading up to the tenth century <span>ah</span> (sixteenth century <span>ad</span>), while theology (<i>kalam</i>), particularly Shi'ite theology, had increasingly come to be expressed in philosophical terminology, a process which was initiated in large part by al-Tusi (see <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H004.htm">Mystical philosophy in Islam</a>; <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H009.htm">Islamic theology</a>). Several philosophers had combined various strands from this philosophical heritage in their writings, but it was Mulla Sadra who achieved a true fusion of all four, forming what he called 'metaphilosophy' (<i>al-hikma al-muta'aliya</i>), a term he incorporated into the title of his magnum opus, <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027WKENT1">al-Hikma al-muta'aliya fi'l-asfar al-'aqliyya al-arba'a (The Transcendent Wisdom Concerning the Four Intellectual Journeys)</a>, known simply as the <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027WKENT1">Asfar</a>.<br />
Mulla Sadra made the primacy of existence (<i>asalat al-wujud</i>) the cornerstone of his philosophy. <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/A022.htm#A022SECT11">Aristotle (§§11-12)</a> had pointed out that existence was the most universal of predicates and therefore could not be included as one of the categories, and <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H021.htm">al-Farabi</a> added to this that it was possible to know an essence without first knowing whether it existed or not, existence thus being neither a constitutive element of an essence nor a necessary attribute, and that therefore it must be an accident. But it was <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H026.htm">Ibn Sina</a> who later became the source for the controversy as to how the accidentality of existence was to be conceived. He had held that in the existence-quiddity (<i>wujud-mahiyya</i>) or existence-essence relationship, existence was an accident of quiddity. <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H025.htm">Ibn Rushd</a> had criticized this view as entailing a regress, for if the existence of a thing depended on the addition of an accident to it, then the same principle would have to apply to existence itself. This was merely an argument against the existence-quiddity dichotomy, but <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H031.htm">al-Suhrawardi</a> had added to this another argument, asserting that if existence were an attribute of quiddity, quiddity itself would have to exist before attracting this attribute in order to be thus qualified. From this, al-Suhrawardi deduced the more radical conclusion that existence is merely a mental concept with no corresponding reality, and that it is quiddity which constitutes reality.<br />
It was this view, that of the primacy of quiddity (<i>asalat al-mahiyya</i>), which held sway in philosophical writing in Iran up to Mulla Sadra's time. Indeed, Mir Damad, Mulla Sadra's teacher, held this view. However, Mulla Sadra himself took the opposite view, that it is existence that constitutes reality and that it is quiddities which are the mental constructs. By taking the position of the primacy of existence, Mulla Sadra was able to answer the objections of Ibn Rushd and the Illuminationists by pointing out that existence is accidental to quiddity in the mind in so far as it is not a part of its essence. When it is a case of attributing existentiality to existence, however, what is being discussed is an essential attribute; and so at this point the regress stopped, for the source of an essential attribute is the essence itself.<br />
<a href="" name="H027SECT2"><h3>2. The systematic ambiguity of existence</h3></a> A concomitant of Mulla Sadra's theory that reality and existence are identical is that existence is one but graded in intensity; to this he gave the name <i>tashkik al-wujud</i>, which has been usefully translated as the 'systematic ambiguity' of existence. <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H031.htm">Al-Suhrawardi</a>, in contrast to the peripatetics, had asserted that quiddities were capable of a range of intensities; for example, when a colour, such as blue, intensifies it is not a new species of 'blueness' which replaces the old one, but is rather the same 'blue' intensified. Mulla Sadra adopted this theory but replaced quiddity with existence, which was for him the only reality. This enabled him to say that it is the same existence which occurs in all things, but that existential instances differ in terms of 'priority and posteriority, perfection and imperfection, strength and weakness' (making reality similar to al-Suhrawardi's Light). He was thus able to explain that it was existence and existence alone which had the property of combining 'unity in multiplicity, and multiplicity in unity'.<br />
Reality is therefore pure existence, but an existence which manifests itself in different modes, and it is these modes which present themselves in the mind as quiddities. Even the term 'in the mind', however, is merely an expression denoting a particular mode of being, that of mental existence (<i>al-wujud al-dhihni</i>), albeit an extremely attenuated mode. Everything is thus comprehended by existence, even 'nothingness', which must on being conceived assume the most meagre portion of existence in order to become a mental existent. When reality (or rather a mode of existence) presents itself to the mind, the mind abstracts a quiddity from it - being unable, except in exceptional circumstances, to grasp existence intuitively - and in the mind the quiddity becomes, as it were, the reality and existence the accident. However, this 'existence' which the mind predicates of the quiddity is itself merely a notion or concept, one of the secondary intelligibles. It is this which is the most universal and most self-evident concept to which the Aristotelians referred, and which al-Suhrawardi regarded as univocal. But in reality there are not two 'things', existence and quiddity, only existence - not the concept, but the reality - and so 'existence' cannot be regarded as a real attribute of quiddity; for if this were possible quiddity would have to be regarded as already existent, as al-Suhrawardi had objected.<br />
<a href="" name="H027SECT3"><h3>3. Substantial motion</h3></a> Another of the key properties of existence for Mulla Sadra is its transubstantiality, effected through what he termed motion in substance (<i>al-haraka fi'l-jawhar</i>) or substantial motion (<i>al-haraka al-jawhariyya</i>). The peripatetics had held that substance only changes suddenly, from one substance to another or from one instant to another, in generation and corruption (and therefore only in the sublunar world), and that gradual motion is confined to the accidents (quantity, quality, place). They also held that the continuity of movement is something only in the mind, which strings together a potentially infinite series of infinitesimal changes - rather in the fashion of a film - to produce the illusion of movement, although time as an extension is a true part of our experience. What gives rise to movement is an unchanging substrate, part of the essence of which is that it is at an indefinite point in space at some instant in time; in other words, movement is potential in it and is that through which it becomes actual. Mulla Sadra completely rejected this, on the grounds that the reality of this substance, its being, must itself be in motion, for the net result of the peripatetic view is merely a static conglomeration of spatio-temporal events. The movement from potentiality to actuality of a thing is in fact the abstract notion in the mind, while material being itself is in a constant state of flux perpetually undergoing substantial change. Moreover, this substantial change is a property not only of sublunary elemental beings (those composed of earth, water, air and fire) but of celestial beings as well. Mulla Sadra likened the difference between these two understandings of movement to the difference between the abstracted, derivative notion of existence and the existence which is reality itself.<br />
Existence in Mulla Sadra's philosophical system, as has been seen, is characterized by systematic ambiguity (<i>tashkik</i>), being given its systematic character by substantial motion, which is always in one direction towards perfection. In other words, existence can be conceived of as a continual unfolding of existence, which is thus a single whole with a constantly evolving internal dynamic. What gives things their identities are the imagined essences which we abstract from the modes of existence, while the reality is ever-changing; it is only when crucial points are reached that we perceive this change and new essences are formed in our minds, although change has been continually going on. Time is the measure of this process of renewal, and is not an independent entity such that events take place within it, but rather is a dimension exactly like the three spatial dimensions: the physical world is a spatio-temporal continuum.<br />
All of this permits Mulla Sadra to give an original solution to the problem which has continually pitted philosophers against theologians in Islam, that of the eternity of the world. In his system, the world is eternal as a continual process of the unfolding of existence, but since existence is in a constant state of flux due to its continuous substantial change, every new manifestation of existence in the world emerges in time. The world - that is, every spatio-temporal event from the highest heaven downwards - is thus temporally originated, although as a whole the world is also eternal in the sense that it has no beginning or end, since time is not something existing independently within which the world in turn exists (see <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/K017.htm">Eternity</a>).<br />
<a href="" name="H027SECT4"><h3>4. Epistemology</h3></a> Mulla Sadra's radical ontology also enabled him to offer original contributions to epistemology, combining aspects of Ibn Sina's theory of knowledge (in which the Active Intellect, while remaining utterly transcendent, actualizes the human mind by instilling it with intellectual forms in accordance with its state of preparation to receive these forms) with the theory of self-knowledge through knowledge by presence developed by al-Suhrawardi. Mulla Sadra's epistemology is based on the identity of the intellect and the intelligible, and on the identity of knowledge and existence. His theory of substantial motion, in which existence is a dynamic process constantly moving towards greater intensity and perfection, had allowed him to explain that new forms, or modes, of existence do not replace prior forms but on the contrary subsume them. Knowledge, being identical with existence, replicates this process, and by acquiring successive intelligible forms - which are in reality modes of being and not essential forms, and are thus successive intensifications of existence - gradually moves the human intellect towards identity with the Active Intellect. The intellect thus becomes identified with the intelligibles which inform it.<br />
Furthermore, for Mulla Sadra actual intelligibles are self-intelligent and self-intellected, since an actual intelligible cannot be deemed to have ceased to be intelligible once it is considered outside its relation to intellect. As the human intellect acquires more intelligibles, it gradually moves upwards in terms of the intensification and perfection of existence, losing its dependence on quiddities, until it becomes one with the Active Intellect and enters the realm of pure existence. Humans can, of course, normally only attain at best a partial identification with the Active Intellect as long as they remain with their physical bodies; only in the case of prophets can there be complete identification, allowing them to have direct access to knowledge for themselves without the need for instruction. Indeed, only very few human minds attain identification with the Active Intellect even after death.<br />
<a href="" name="H027SECT5"><h3>5. Methodology</h3></a> Even this brief account of Mulla Sadra's main doctrines will have given some idea of the role that is played in his philosophy by the experience of the reality which it describes. Indeed he conceived of <i>hikma</i> (wisdom) as 'coming to know the essence of beings as they really are' or as 'a man's becoming an intellectual world corresponding to the objective world'. Philosophy and mysticism, <i>hikma</i> and Sufism, are for him two aspects of the same thing. To engage in philosophy without experiencing the truth of its content confines the philosopher to a world of essences and concepts, while mystical experience without the intellectual discipline of philosophy can lead only to an ineffable state of ecstasy. When the two go hand in hand, the mystical experience of reality becomes the intellectual content of philosophy.<br />
The four journeys, the major sections into which the <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027WKENT1">Asfar</a> is divided, parallel a fourfold division of the Sufi journey. The first, the journey of creation or the creature (<i>khalq</i>) to the Truth (<i>al-haqq</i>), is the most philosophical; here Mulla Sadra lays out the basis of his ontology, and mirrors the stage in the Sufi's path where he seeks to control his lower <i>nafs</i> under the supervision of his <i>shaykh</i>. In the second journey, in the Truth with the Truth, the stage at which the Sufi begins to attract the divine manifestations, Mulla Sadra deals with the simple substances, the intelligences, the souls and their bodies, including therefore his discussion of the natural sciences. In the third journey, from the Truth to creation with the Truth, the Sufi experiences annihilation in the Godhead, and Mulla Sadra deals with theodicy; the fourth stage, the journey with the Truth in creation, where he gives a full and systematic account of the development of the human soul, its origin, becoming and end, is where the Sufi experiences persistence in annihilation, absorbed in the beauty of oneness and the manifestations of multiplicity.<br />
Mulla Sadra had described his blinding spiritual realization of the primacy of existence as a kind of 'conversion':<br />
<blockquote> In the earlier days I used to be a passionate defender of the thesis that the quiddities are the primary constituents of reality and existence is conceptual, until my Lord gave me spiritual guidance and let me see His demonstration. All of a sudden my spiritual eyes were opened and I saw with utmost clarity that the truth was just the contrary of what the philosophers in general had held.... As a result [I now hold that] the existences (<i>wujudat</i>) are primary realities, while the quiddities are the 'permanent archetypes' (<i>a'yan thabita</i>) that have never smelt the fragrance of existence.<br />
<div align="right"> (<a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/h027.htm#H027WKENT1"><i>Asfar</i>, vol. 1, introduction</a>) </div></blockquote>Therefore it is not surprising that Mulla Sadra is greatly indebted to Ibn al-'Arabi in many aspects of his philosophy. Ibn Sina provides the ground on which his metaphilosophy is constructed and is, as it were, the lens through which he views Peripatetic philosophy. However, his work is also full of citations from the Presocratics (particularly <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/A103.htm">Pythagoras</a>), <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/A088.htm">Plato</a>, <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/A022.htm">Aristotle</a>, the Neoplatonists (see <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H003.htm">Neoplatonism in Islamic philosophy</a>) and the Stoics (taken naturally from Arabic sources), and he also refers to the works of <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H021.htm">al-Farabi</a>, and Abu'l Hasan <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H041.htm">al-'Amiri</a>, who had prefigured Mulla Sadra's theory of the unity of intellect and intelligible. This philosophical heritage is then given shape through the illuminationism of <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H031.htm">al-Suhrawardi</a>, whose universe of static grades of light he transformed into a dynamic unity by substituting the primacy of existence for the latter's primacy of quiddity. It is in this shaping that the influence of Ibn al-'Arabi, whom Mulla Sadra quotes and comments on in hundreds of instances, can be most keenly felt. Not only is that apparent in Mulla Sadra's total dismissal of any role for quiddity in the nature of reality, but in the importance which both he and Ibn al-'Arabi gave to the imaginal world (<i>'alam al-mithal</i>, <i>'alam al-khayal</i>).<br />
In Ibn Sina's psychology, the imaginal faculty (<i>al-quwwa al-khayaliyya</i>) is the site for the manipulation of images abstracted from material objects and retained in the <i>sensus communis</i>. The imaginal world had first been formally proposed by al-Suhrawardi as an intermediate realm between that of material bodies and that of intellectual entities, which is independent of matter and thus survives the body after death. Ibn al-'Arabi had emphasized the creative aspects of this power to originate by mere volition imaginal forms which are every bit as real as, if not more real than, perceptibles but which subsist in no place. For Mulla Sadra, this world is a level of immaterial existence with which it is possible for the human soul (and indeed certain higher forms of the animal soul) to be in contact, although not all the images formed by the human soul are necessarily veridical and therefore part of the imaginal world. For Mulla Sadra, as also for Ibn al-'Arabi, the imaginal world is the key to understanding the nature of bodily resurrection and the afterlife, which exists as an immaterial world which is nevertheless real (perhaps one might say more real than the physical world), in which the body survives as an imaginal form after death.<br />
Philosophy has always had a tense relationship with theology in Islam, especially with the latter's discourse of faith (<i>iman</i>) and orthodoxy. In consequence, philosophy has often been seen, usually by non-philosophers, as a school with its own doctrines. This is despite the assertions of philosophers themselves that what they were engaged in was a practice without end (for, as Ibn Sina had declared that what is known to humankind is limited and could only possibly be fulfilled when the association of the soul with the body is severed through death), part of the discipline of which consisted in avoiding <i>taqlid</i>, an uncritical adherence to sects (see <a href="http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H006.htm">Islam, concept of philosophy in</a>). It is the notable feature of Mulla Sadra's methodology that he constantly sought to transcend the particularities of any system - Platonic, Aristotelian, Neoplatonic, mystical or theological - by striving to create through his metaphilosophy an instrument with which the soundness of all philosophical arguments might be tested. It is a measure of his success that he has remained to the present day the most influential of the 'modern' philosophers in the Islamic world.<br />
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"></div>sourches: http://www.muslimphilosophy.com/ip/rep/H027.htm </div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-54626135567872151772011-11-24T03:15:00.000-08:002011-11-24T03:15:37.681-08:00Fazlur Rahman, The New Paradigma of Islamic Perspectif<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://pemikiranislam.files.wordpress.com/2007/07/f_rahman.gif" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://pemikiranislam.files.wordpress.com/2007/07/f_rahman.gif" width="242" /></a></div><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="Fazlur Rahman dilahirkan pada tanggal 21 September 1919 di Hazara, suatu daerah di Anak Benua Indo-Pakistan yang sekarang terletak di barat laut Pakistan.">Fazlur Rahman was born on September 21, 1919 in Hazara, an area in the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent are now located in northwestern Pakistan. </span><span title="Wilayah Anak Benua Indo-Pakistan sudah tidak diragukan lagi telah melahirkan banyak pemikir Islam yang cukup berpengaruh dalam perkembangan pemikiran Islam, seperti Syah Wali Allah, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, hingga Sir Muhammad Iqbal.">Children Continent region of Indo-Pakistan has no doubt has given rise to many Islamic thinkers are quite influential in the development of Islamic thought, such as Shah Wali Allah, Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, to Sir Muhammad Iqbal. </span><span title="Nama keluarga Fazlur Rahman adalah Malak, namun nama keluarga Malak ini tidak pernah digunakan dalam daftar referensi baik di Barat ataupun di Timur.">Fazlur Rahman's family name is Malak, but Malak surname is never used in the reference list in the West or the East.<br />
</span><span title="Fazlur Rahman dilahirkan dalam suatu keluarga Muslim yang sangat religius.">Fazlur Rahman was born in a very religious Muslim family. </span><span title="Kerelegiusan ini dinyatakan oleh Fazlur Rahman sendiri yang mengatakan bahwa ia mempraktekan ibadah-ibadah keisalaman seperti shalat, puasa, dan lainnya, tanpa meninggalkannya sekalipun (1992: 59).">Kerelegiusan is expressed by Fazlur Rahman himself who said that he practiced keisalaman devotions such as prayer, fasting, etc., without leaving even (1992: 59). </span><span title="Dengan latar belakang kehidupan keagamaan yang demikian, maka menjadi wajar ketika berumur sepuluh tahun ia sudah dapat menghafal Alquran.">With a background of religious life that way, then it becomes reasonable when it was ten years old he had memorized the Koran. </span><span title="Adapun mazhab yang dianut oleh keluarganya ialah mazhab Hanafi.">The schools of the family is embraced by the Hanafi school.<br />
</span><span title="Walaupun hidup ditengah-tengah keluarga mazhab Sunni, Fazlur Rahman mampu melepaskan diri dari sekat-sekat yang membatasi perkembangan intelektualitasnya dan keyakinan-keyakinannya.">Although the family lived in the midst of the Sunni sect, Fazlur Rahman able to escape from the barriers that limit the development of his intellect and his beliefs. </span><span title="Dengan demikian, Fazlur Rahman dapat mengekspresikan gagasan-gagasannya secara terbuka dan bebas.">Thus, Fazlur Rahman can express his ideas openly and freely. </span><span title="Seperti pendapat mengenai wajibnya shalat tiga waktu yang dijalani oleh penganut mazhab Syi'ah, Fazlur Rahman beranggapan bahwa praktek tersebut dibenarkan secara historis karena Muhammad saw.">As the opinion of the necessity of praying three times lived by adherents of Shia sect, Fazlur Rahman thought that the practice is justified historically because Muhammad. </span><span title="pernah melakukannya tanpa sesuatu alasan (Rahman, 2003: 41).">never do it without some reason (Rahman, 2003: 41).<br />
</span><span title="Orang tua Fazlur Rahman sangat mempengaruhi pembentukan watak dan keyakinan awal keagamaannya.">Fazlur Rahman's parents greatly affect the initial formation of character and religious beliefs. </span><span title="Melalui ibunya, Fazlur Rahman memperoleh pelajaran berupa nilai-nilai kebenaran, kasih saying, kesetiaan, dan cinta.">Through his mother, Fazlur Rahman get a lesson in the form of the values of truth, affection, loyalty, and love. </span><span title="Ayah Fazlur Rahman merupakan penganut mazhab Hanafi yang sangat kuat, namun beliau tidak menutup diri dari pendidikan modern.">Fazlur Rahman's father is the adherents of the Hanafi school of a very strong, but he did not shut yourself off from modern education. </span><span title="Tidak seperti penganut mazhab Hanafi fanatik lainnya ketika itu, Ayahnya berkeyakinan bahwa Islam harus memandang modernitas sebagai tantangan-tantangan dan kesempatan-kesempatan.">Unlike other fanatical adherents of the Hanafi school of the time, his father believes that Islam should see modernity as the challenges and opportunities. </span><span title="Pandangan ayahnya inilah yang kemudian mempengaruhi pemikiran dan keyakinan Fazlur Rahman (Rahman, 1992: 59).">His gaze is then influence the thinking and beliefs Fazlur Rahman (Rahman, 1992: 59). </span><span title="Selain itu, melalui tempaan ayahnya, Fazlur Rahman pada kemudian hari menjadi seorang yang bersosok cukup tekun dalam mendapatkan pengetahuan dari pelbagai sumber, dan melalui ibunyalah kemudian ia sangat tegar dan tabah dalam mengembangkan keyakinan dan pembaruan Islam (A'la, 2003: 34).">In addition, through forging her father, Fazlur Rahman in later life became a stature quite diligent in getting the knowledge from various sources, and through her mother, then he is very brave and steadfast belief in developing and Islamic reform (A'la, 2003: 34).<br />
</span><span title="Pada tahun 1933, Fazlur Rahman melanjutkan pendidikannya di sebuah sekolah modern di Lahore.">In 1933, Fazlur Rahman continued his education in a modern school in Lahore. </span><span title="Selain mengenyam pendidikan formal, Fazlur Rahman pun mendapatkan pendidikan atau pengajaran tradisinonal dalam kajian-kajian keislaman dari ayahnya, Maulana Syahab al Din.">In addition to formal education, Fazlur Rahman also get an education or teaching tradisinonal in Islamic studies from his father, Maulana Din al Syahab. </span><span title="Materi pengajaran yang diberikan ayahnya ini merupakan materi yang ia dapat ketika menempuh pendidikan di Darul Ulum Deoband, di wilayah utara India.">Teaching materials given his father is a material that he can when his education at Darul Uloom Deoband, in northern India. </span><span title="Ketika berumur empat belas tahun, Fazlur Rahman sudah mulai mempelajari filsafat, bahasa Arab, teologi atau kalam, hadis dan tafsir (A'la, 2003: 34).">When he was fourteen years old, Fazlur Rahman has started to study philosophy, Arabic, theology or kalam, hadith and tafsir (A'la, 2003: 34).<br />
</span><span title="Setelah menyelesaikan pendidikan menengahnya, Fazlur Rahman kemudian melanjutkan pendidikannya dengan mengambil bahasa Arab sebagai kosentrasi studinya dan pada tahun 1940 ia berhasil mendapatkan gelar Bachelor of Art.">After completing his secondary education, Fazlur Rahman and then continued his education by taking a concentration in Arabic studies and in 1940 he obtained a Bachelor of Art. </span><span title="Dua tahun kemudian, tokoh utama gerakan neomodernis Islam ini berhasil menyelesaikan studinya di universitas yang sama dan mendapatkan gelar Master dalam bahasa Arab.">Two years later, the main character of Islamic neo-modernist movement is successfully completing his studies at the same university and earn a Master's degree in Arabic. </span><span title="Menurut Amal (1996: 80), ketika telah menyelesaikan studi Masternya dan tengah belajar untuk menempuh program Doktoral di Lahore, Fazlur Rahman pernah diajak oleh Abul A'la Mauwdudi, yang kelak menjadi “musuh” intelektualitasnya, untuk bergabung di Jama'at al Islami">According to Amal (1996: 80), when it has completed the master studies and is studying to take the doctoral program in Lahore, Fazlur Rahman once invited by Abul A'la Mauwdudi, which later became the "enemy" intellect, to join the Jama'at al-Islami </span><span title="dengan syarat meninggalkan pendidikannya.">on condition of leaving education.<br />
</span><span title="Pada tahun 1946, Fazlur Rahman berangkat ke Inggris untuk melanjutkan studinya di Oxford University.">In 1946, Fazlur Rahman went to England to continue his studies at Oxford University. </span><span title="Keputusannya untuk melanjutkan studinya di Inggris dikarenakan oleh mutu pendidikan di India ketika itu sangat rendah.">His decision to continue his studies in England because of the quality of education in India when it was very low. </span><span title="Dibawah bimbingan Profesor S.">Under the guidance of Professor S. </span><span title="Van den Berg dan HAR Gibb, Fazlur Rahman berhasil menyelesaikan studinya tersebut dan memperoleh gelar Ph.">Van den Berg and HAR Gibb, Fazlur Rahman managed to finish his studies and received his Ph. </span><span title="D pada tahun 1949 dengan disertasi tentang Ibnu Sina.">D in 1949 with a dissertation on Ibn Sina. </span><span title="Disertasi Fazlur Rahman ini kemudian diterbitkan oleh Oxford University Press dengan judul Avicenna's Psychology.">Fazlur Rahman dissertation was later published by Oxford University Press under the title Avicenna's Psychology.<br />
</span><span title="Selama menempuh pendidikan di Barat, Fazlur Rahman menyempatkan diri untuk belajar pelbagai bahasa asing.">During his education in the West, Fazlur Rahman taking the time to learn various foreign languages. </span><span title="Bahasa-bahasa yang berhasil dikuasai olehnya diantaranya ialah Latin, Yunani, Inggris, Jerman, Turki, Arab dan Urdu (Sutrisno, 2006: 62).">Languages of which was successfully controlled by him Latin, Greek, English, German, Turkish, Arabic and Urdu (Sutrisno, 2006: 62). </span><span title="Penguasaan pelbagai bahasa ini membantu Fazlur Rahman dalam memperdalam dan memperluas cakrawala keilmuannya (khususnya studi keislaman) melalui penelusuran pelbagai literatur.">Mastery of various languages is helpful Fazlur Rahman in deepening and expanding the horizon of scientific (especially Islamic studies) through various literature search.<br />
</span><span title="Setelah menyelesaikan studinya di Oxford University, Fazlur Rahman tidak langsung ke negeri asalnya Pakistan (ketika itu sudah melepaskan diri dari India), ia memutuskan untuk tinggal beberapa saat disana.">After completing his studies at Oxford University, Fazlur Rahman indirectly to his native country of Pakistan (when it was break away from India), he decided to stay a while there. </span><span title="Ketika tinggal di tinggal di Inggris, Fazlur Rahman sempat mengajar di Durham University.">While staying in the residence in England, Fazlur Rahman had taught at Durham University. </span><span title="Kemudian pindah mengajar ke Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, Kanada, dan menjabat sebagai Associate Professor of Philosophy sampai awal tahun 1960.">Then moved to teach to the Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University, Canada, and served as Associate Professor of Philosophy until early 1960. </span><span title="Menurut pengakuan Fazlur Rahman, ketika menempuh studi pascasarjana di Oxford University dan mengajar di Durham University, konflik antara pendidikan modern yang diperolehnya di Barat dengan pendidikan Islam tradisional yang didapatkan ketika di negeri asalnya mulai menyeruak.">According to Fazlur Rahman, while taking graduate studies at Oxford University and taught at Durham University, the conflict between modern education earned in the West with traditional Islamic education obtained in his native country when it began to burst. </span><span title="Konflik ini kemudian membawanya pada skeptisisme yang cukup dalam, yang diakibatkan studinya dalam bidang filsafat (Rahman, 1992: 60).">This conflict is then led to considerable skepticism in, due to his studies in philosophy (Rahman, 1992: 60).<br />
</span><span title="Setelah tiga tahun mengajar di McGill University, akhirnya pada awal tahun 1960 Fazlur Rahman kembali ke Pakistan setelah sebelumnya diminta bantunnya oleh Ayyub Khan untuk membangun negeri asalnya, Pakistan.">After three years of teaching at McGill University, eventually in early 1960 Fazlur Rahman returned to Pakistan after being asked by Ayub Khan bantunnya to rebuild the country of origin, Pakistan. </span><span title="Menurut Moosa (2000: 2), permintaan Ayyub Khan kepada Fazlur Rahman ialah bertujuan untuk membawa Pakistan pada khittah berupa negara yang bervisi Islam Selanjutnya pada tahun 1962, Fazlur Rahman diminta oleh Ayyub Khan untuk memimpin Lembaga Riset Islam (Islamic Research Institute) dan menjadi anggota">According to Moosa (2000: 2), request to Fazlur Rahman Ayub Khan is aiming to bring Pakistan on khittah a visionary Islamic state Subsequently in 1962, Fazlur Rahman was asked by Ayub Khan to lead the Islamic Research Institute (Islamic Research Institute) and become a member </span><span title="Dewan Penasihat Ideologi Islam (The Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology).">Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology (The Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology). </span><span title="Motivasi Fazlur Rahman untuk menerima tawaran dari Ayyub Khan dapat dilacak pada keinginannya untuk membangkitkan kembali visi Alquran yang dinilainya telah terkubur dalam puing-puing sejarah (Rahman, 1992: 63).">Fazlur Rahman's motivation to accept an offer from Ayub Khan can be traced to his desire to revive the vision of the Qur'an are judged to have been buried in the rubble of history (Rahman, 1992: 63).<br />
</span><span title="Kursi panas yang diduduki oleh Fazlur Rahman akhirnya menuai pelbagai reaksi.">Hot seat occupied by Fazlur Rahman finally reap the various reactions. </span><span title="Para ulama tradisional menolak jika Fazlur Rahman mendudukinya, ini disebabkan oleh latar belakang pendidikannya yang ditempuh di Barat.">The traditional ulema rejected if Fazlur Rahman possess it, is caused by the educational background to be taken in the West. </span><span title="Penentangan atas Fazlur Rahman akhirnya mencapai klimaksnya ketika jurnal Fikr-o-Nazar menerbitkan tulisannya yang kemudian menjadi dua bab pertama bukunya yang berjudul Islam.">Opposition to the Fazlur Rahman finally reached its climax when the journal Fikr-o-Nazar published writings that later became the first two chapters of his book of Islam. </span><span title="Pada tulisan tersebut, Fazlur Rahman mengemukakan pikiran kontroversialnya mengenai hakikat wahyu dan hubungannya dengan Muhammad saw.">In the article, Fazlur Rahman put forward controversial thoughts about the nature of revelation and its relationship with Muhammad. </span><span title="Menurut Fazlur Rahman, Alquran sepenuhnya adalah kalam atau perkataan Allah swt, namun dalam arti biasa, Alquran juga merupakan perkataan Muhammad saw.">According to Fazlur Rahman, the Qur'an is the word or words fully God Almighty, but in the usual sense, the Qur'an is also a word of Muhammad. </span><span title="(Rahman, 2003: 33).">(Rahman, 2003: 33). </span><span title="Akibat pernyataan-pernyataannya tersebut, Fazlur Rahman dinyatakan sebagai munkir-i-Quran (orang yang tidak percaya Alquran).">Due to these statements, Fazlur Rahman expressed as munkir-i-Quran (one who does not believe in the Koran). </span><span title="Menurut Amal (1994: 14-15), kontroversi dalam media masa Pakistan mengenai pemikiran Fazlur Rahman tersebut berlalu hingga kurang lebih satu tahun, yang pada akhirnya kontroversi ini membawa pada gelombang demonstrasi massa dan mogok total di beberapa daerah Pakistan pada September 1968.">According to Amal (1994: 14-15), controversy in the media about the Pakistani Fazlur Rahman thought it went until about a year, which in the end this controversy led to a wave of mass demonstrations and strike the total in some areas of Pakistan in September 1968. </span><span title="Menurut hampir seluruh pengkaji pemikiran Fazlur Rahman berpendapat bahwa penolakan atasnya bukanlah ditujukan kepada Fazlur Rahman tetapi untuk menentang Ayyub Khan.">According to almost all the reviewers thought Fazlur Rahman argues that the denial of it is not intended to Fazlur Rahman but to oppose Ayub Khan. </span><span title="Hingga akhirya pada 5 September 1968 permintaan Fazlur Rahman untuk mengundurkan diri dari pimpinan Lembaga Riset Islam dikabulkan oleh Ayyub Khan.">Until akhirya on 5 September 1968 Fazlur Rahman's request to resign from the leadership of the Islamic Research Institute granted by Ayub Khan.<br />
</span><span title="Pada akhir tahun 1969 Fazlur Rahaman meninggalkan Pakistan untuk memenuhi tawaran Universitas California, Los Angeles, dan langsung diangkat menjadi Guru Besar Pemikiran Islam di universitas yang sama.">At the end of 1969 Fazlur Rahaman left Pakistan to meet the offer of the University of California, Los Angeles, and immediately appointed Professor of Islamic Thought at the same university. </span><span title="Mata kuliah yang ia ajarkan meliputi pemahaman Alquran, filsafat Islam, tasawuf, hukum Islam, pemikiran politik Islam, modernism Islam, kajian tentang al Ghazali, Shah Wali Allah, Muhammad Iqbal, dan lain-lain.">The courses he taught include understanding the Qur'an, Islamic philosophy, Sufism, Islamic law, Islamic political thought, Islamic modernism, the study of al-Ghazali, Shah Wali Allah, Muhammad Iqbal, and others. </span><span title="Salah satu alasan yang menjadikan Rahman memutuskan untuk mengajar di Barat disebabkan oleh keyakinan bahwa gagasan-gagasan yang ditawarkannya tidak akan menemukan lahan subur di Pakistan.">One reason that makes Rahman decided to teach in the West due to the belief that it offers ideas will not find fertile ground in Pakistan. </span><span title="Selain itu, Rahman menginginkan adanya keterbukaan atas pelbagai gagasan dan suasana perdebatan yang sehat, yang tidak ia temukan di Pakistan (A'la, 2003: 40).">In addition, Rahman wanted the openness of the various ideas and an atmosphere of healthy debate, which he did not find in Pakistan (A'la, 2003: 40).<br />
</span><span title="Selama di Chicago, Fazlur Rahman mencurahkan seluruh kehidupannya pada dunia keilmuan dan Islam.">While in Chicago, Fazlur Rahman devote his whole life to the world of science and Islam. </span><span title="Kehidupannya banyak dihabiskan di perpustakaan pribadinya di basement rumahnya, yang terletak di Naperville, kurang lebih 70 kilometer dari Universitas Chicago.">His life was spent in his personal library in the basement of his home, located in Naperville, approximately 70 kilometers from the University of Chicago. </span><span title="Rahman sendiri menggambarkan aktitivitas dirinya tersebut laiknya ikan yang naik ke atas hanya untuk mendapatkan udara (Wan Daud, 1991: 108).">Rahman himself describes himself aktitivitas Like the fish are rising to the top just to get air (Wan Daud, 1991: 108). </span><span title="Dari konsistensinya dan kesungguhannya terhadap dunia keilmuan akhirnya Rahman mendapatkan pengakuan lembaga keilmuan berskala internasional.">Of consistency and sincerity to the world of science Rahman finally get the recognition of international scientific institutions. </span><span title="Pengakuan tersebut salah satunya ialah pada tahun 1983 ia menerima Giorgio Levi Della Vida dari Gustave E von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, Universitas California, Los Angeles.">Recognition is one of them is that in 1983 he received the Giorgio Levi Della Vida E of Gustave von Grunebaum Center for Near Eastern Studies, University of California, Los Angeles.<br />
</span><span title="Pada pertengahan dekade 80-an, kesehatan tokoh utama neomodernisme Islam tersebut mulai terganggu, dintaranya ia mengidap penyakit kencing manis dan jantung.">In the mid-80s, the main character neomodernisme health began to fail Islam, dintaranya he suffered from diabetes and heart disease. </span><span title="Konsistensi Rahman untuk terus berkarya pun ditandai oleh lahirnya karya yang berjudul Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism.">Consistency Rahman to continue working was marked by the birth of a work entitled Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism. </span><span title="Walaupun baru diterbitkan setelah beliau wafat, namun pengerjaannya dilakukan ketika sakit beliau makin parah dengan dibantu oleh puteranya.">Although only published after his death, but the process is done when the pain got worse he was assisted by his son. </span><span title="Akhirnya, pada 26 Juli 1988 profesor pemikiran Islam di Univesitas Chicago itu pun tutup usia pada usia 69 tahun setelah beberapa lama sebelumnya dirawat di rumah sakit Chicago.">Finally, on July 26, 1988 professor of Islamic thought at the University of Chicago that was closed at the age of 69 years of age after a long time before being treated in Chicago hospitals.<br />
</span><span title="Perkembangan Pemikiran dan Karya-Karya">Development of Thought and Works<br />
</span><span title="Pemikiran Fazlur Rahman dapat dibagi menjadi tiga fase atau periode, yakni periode awal, periode Pakistan, dan periode Chicago.">Fazlur Rahman's thinking can be divided into three phases or periods, namely the initial period, Pakistan period, and period of Chicago. </span><span title="Periode pertama belangsung sekitar dekade 50-an dan pada periode ini Rahman hanya menghasilkan karya-karya yang besifat historis, seperti Avicenna's Psycology (1952), Avicenna's De Anima, dan Propecy in Islam: Philosophy and Orthodoxy (1958).">The first period lasts approximately decade of the 50s and during this period Rahman only produce works that besifat historical, such as Avicenna's Psycology (1952), Avicenna's De Anima, and Propecy in Islam: Philosophy and Orthodoxy (1958). </span><span title="Melalui ketiga buku Rahman ini akan terlihat jelas concern pemikirannya, yakni kajian historis murni.">Through this third book Rahman will be obvious concern thoughts, ie purely historical study. </span><span title="Namun demikian, kajian yang dilakukan Rahman pada buku yang disebut terakhir mempengaruhi pandangannya tentang proses pewahyuan kepada nabi Muhammad saw (Amal, 1996: 116).">However, studies carried out Rahman in the latter book affect his views on the process of revelation to the Prophet Muhammad (Amal, 1996: 116).<br />
</span><span title="Periode Pakistan merupakan tahapan kedua dari perkembangan pemikiran Rahman yang berlangsung sekitar dekade 60-an.">Period of Pakistan is the second stage of development Rahman thought that goes around the 60's decade. </span><span title="Berbeda dengan periode pertama yang cenderung pada kajian historis dari pemikiran Islam, concern Rahman pada periode ini mengalami perubahan yang radikal, yakni pada kajian-kajian Islam normatif.">Unlike the first period that tends to the historical study of Islamic thought, concern Rahman in this period of radical change, namely the normative Islamic studies. </span><span title="Adapun faktor-faktor yang melatarbelakangi perubahan concern pemikiran Rahman ini ialah.">The factors underlying the changes concern Rahman thought it was.<br />
</span><span title="1.">1. </span><span title="Adanya kontroversi yang akut di Pakistan antara kalngan modernis disatu pihak dan kalangan tradisionalis dan fundamentalis di lain pihak.">The existence of an acute controversy in Pakistan between modernist kalngan one hand and the traditionalists and fundamentalists on the other. </span><span title="Kontroversi ini bermuara pada definisi Islam untuk negeri Pakistan ketika itu,">This controversy led to the definition of Islam to Pakistan when the country was,<br />
</span><span title="2.">2. </span><span title="Kontak yang intens dengan Barat ketika menetap di sana, sangat berarti dalam penyadaran dirinya pada hakikat tantangan Islam pada periode modern,">Intense contact with the West when it stayed there, very significant in the nature of awareness itself in the Islamic challenge to the modern period,<br />
</span><span title="3.">3. </span><span title="Posisi penting sebagai Direktur Lembaga Riset Islam dan anggota Dewan Penasehat Ideologi Islam Pemerintah Pakistan, yang kemudeian mendorong Rahman untuk turut aktif dalam meberikan definisi Islam bagi Pakistan dari kalangan modernis (Sutrisno, 2006: 71-72).">Important position as Director of the Islamic Research Institute and a member of the Advisory Council of Islamic Ideology Government of Pakistan, which kemudeian Rahman encouraged to participate actively in Islam for Pakistan gave the definition of the modernist (Sutrisno, 2006: 71-72).<br />
</span><span title="Walaupun belum ditopang oleh metodologi yang sistematis, pada periode ini Rahman sudah mulai melakukan kajian Islam normatif dan terlibat dalam arus pemikiran Islam (Sibawaihi, 2007: 21).">Although not yet supported by a systematic methodology, in this period had already started Rahman Islamic studies and is involved in the current normative Islamic thought (Sibawaihi, 2007: 21). </span><span title="Selain itu, Rahman terlibat pula secara intens dalam upaya-upaya menjawab tantangan-tantangan serta kebutuhan-kebutuhan masyarakat Muslim kontemporer dengan cara merumuskan kembali Islam.">In addition, Rahman also intensely involved in efforts to answer the challenges and needs of contemporary Muslim societies redefined the way of Islam. </span><span title="Adapun pada periode ini, pemikiran Rahman dicurahkan dalam memenuhi tugasnya dalam merumuskan ajaran Islam yang disesuaikan dengan kebutuhan masyarakat Pakistan.">As at this period, thought Rahman was poured in fulfilling their duties in the formulation of Islamic teachings that are tailored to the needs of Pakistani society. </span><span title="Keterlibatan Rahman dalam arus pemikiran Islam dapat ditandai oleh beberapa artikel yang ia tulis pada jurnal Islamic Studies pada bulan Maret 1962 hingga Juni 1963.">Rahman's involvement in current Islamic thinking can be characterized by several articles he wrote in the journal Islamic Studies in March 1962 to June 1963. </span><span title="Menurut Açikgenç (dalam Saleh 2007: 27), sebenarnya pada periode kedua ini Rahman sudah berkeinginan mengembangkan metodologi yang menyerukan umat Islam untuk kembali kepada Alquran dan Hadis.">According Açikgenç (in Salih 2007: 27), actually in this second period Rahman is willing to develop a methodology that called on Muslims to return to the Qur'an and Hadith.<br />
</span><span title="Mutiara-mutiara pemikiran yang berhasil dihasilkan oleh Rahman pada periode ini diantaranya Islamic Methodology in History (1965), dan Islam (1966).">Pearls of thought which successfully produced by Rahman in this period include Islamic Methodology in History (1965), and Islam (1966). </span><span title="Buku yang disebut pertama merupakan kumpulan dari beberapa tulisannya yang dipublikasikan di jurnal Islamic Studies.">Called the first book is a collection of some of his writings published in the journal Islamic Studies. </span><span title="Artikel-artikel dalam buku ini ditulis dengan bertujuan untuk memperlihatkan, pertama, evolusi historis dari aplikasi keempat prinisp pokok pemikiran Islam, yakni Alquran, Sunnah, ijtihad, ijma'.">The articles in this book was written with the aim to show, first, the historical evolution of the four applications prinisp staple of Islamic thought, namely the Qur'an, sunnah, ijtihad, ijma '. </span><span title="Kedua, perranan aktual dari prinsip-prinsip tersebut bagi perkembangan Islam (Rahman, 1995: ix).">Second, the actual perranan of these principles for the development of Islam (Rahman, 1995: ix).<br />
</span><span title="Buku kedua Rahman yang lahir pada peridoe kedua ini ialah berjudul Islam.">Rahman, who was born the second book in this second peridoe is called Islam. </span><span title="Buku ini memaparkan perkembangan umum agama Islam selama empat belas abad, oleh karena itu menjadi wajar ketika buku ini menjadi dasar pengantar umum tentang studia Islam.">This book describes the general development of the religion of Islam for fourteen centuries, therefore, be reasonable when the book was the basis for a general introduction about Islam studia. </span><span title="Dua buah artikel pertama yang tersusun dalam buku ini , yakni artikel yang berjudul Muhammad dan Alquran, ketika dipublikasikan di Pakistan sempat menuai pelbagai kontroversi.">The first two articles are arranged in this book, the article entitled Muhammad and the Qur'an, as published in Pakistan could reap the many controversies. </span><span title="Kontroversi terjadi berkenaan padangan Rahman mengenai hakikat Alquran dan proses pewahyuannya kepada Muhammad saw.">The controversy occurred regarding Padangan Rahman about the nature of the Qur'an and the revelation to Muhammad. </span><span title="Rahman memandang bahwa Alquran secara keseluruhannya adalah kalam Allah swt.">Rahman's overall view that the Koran is the word of God Almighty. </span><span title="dan dalam artian biasa merupakan perkataan Muhammad saw (Rahman, 2003: 33).">and in the ordinary sense is the word of Muhammad (Rahman, 2003: 33). </span><span title="Adapaun tulisan-tulisan Rahman yang difokuskan untuk memberi definisi Islam di Pakistan diantaranya ialah Some Reflection on the Reconstruction of Muslim Society in Pakistan, Implementation of the Islamic Concept of State in the Pakistan Milieu, dan The Qur'anic Solution of Pakistan's Educational Problems.">Adapaun Rahman's writings that are focused to give the definition of which is that Islam in Pakistan Some Reflections on the Reconstruction of the Muslim Society in Pakistan, Implementation of the Islamic Concept of State in the Pakistani milieu, and the Qur'anic Solution of Pakistan's Educational Problems.<br />
</span><span title="Perkembangan dan periode pemikiran Fazlur Rahman berikutnya ialah periode Chicago yang terhitung dari kepindahannya ke Chicago.">The development and subsequent periods of thought Fazlur Rahman is the period commencing from Chicago that his move to Chicago. </span><span title="Seluruh karya Rahman yang dihasilkan pada periode ini mencakup kajian Islam historis dan normatif.">The whole work of Rahman produced in this period include the study of historical and normative Islam. </span><span title="Adapun karya-karya yang berhasil ia hasilkan pada periode ini diantaranya The Philosophy of Mulla Shadra, Major Themes of The Qur'an, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition, dan Health and Medicine in Islamic Tradition.">As for the works which he managed to produce in this period include The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra, Major Themes of the Quran, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition, and the Health and Medicine in the Islamic Tradition.<br />
</span><span title="Buku yang pertama penulis sebut di atas murni merupakan karya yang bertemakan Islam historis dan tidak memiliki hubungan dalam kajian-kajian Islam normatif.">The first author of the book referred to above are purely historical Islamic-themed works and does not have a relationship in studies of normative Islam. </span><span title="Sedangkan buku kedua karya Rahman pada periode kedua ini membahas mengenai delapan tema pokok Alquran, yakni Tuhan, Manusia sebagai Individu, Manusia Anggota Masyarakat, Alam Semesta, Kenabian dan Wahyu, Eskatologi, Setan dan Kejahatan, serta Lahirnya Masyarakat Muslim.">While Rahman's second book on this second period of eight key themes discussed the Qur'an: God, Man as an individual, Member of Human Society, Nature, Prophethood and Revelation, Eschatology, Satan and Evil, and The Birth of Muslim Community. </span><span title="Buku yang kerap kali disebut sebagai magum opus Fazlur Rahman ini mengkaji pelbagai ayat-ayat Alquran yang berhubungan dengan tema-tema yang telah disebut sebelumnya dan kemudian ditafsirkan dengan cara menghubungkan ayat-ayat tersebut.">The book which is often referred to as Fazlur Rahman magum opus examines various Quranic verses related to the themes that have been called earlier and later interpreted by connecting these verses. </span><span title="Selain itu, buku karya Rahman ini merupakan sikap atau tanggapannya atas pelabagai buku atau tulisan yang dibuat oleh para orientalis (seperti Richard Bell, Montgomery Watt, John Wansbrough, dal lain sebagainya) yang kerap kali menghubungkan atau beranggapan bahwa Alquran merupakan kelanjutan atau terpengaruh oleh ajaran">Also, Rahman's book is an attitude or response of pelabagai books or writings made by the orientalists (such as Richard Bell, Montgomery Watt, John Wansbrough, dal etc.) that often connect or assume that the Koran is a continuation or influenced by the teachings </span><span title="-ajaran yang pernah ada sebelumya (seperti Yahudi dan Nasrani).">doctrines that ever existed earlier (such as Jews and Christians). </span><span title="Melalui karya ini, Rahman berhasil membangun landasan filosofis yang terga untuk perenungan kembali makna dan pesan Alquran bagi kaum Muslim kontemporer.">Through this work, Rahman managed to build a foundation of philosophical reflection terga to the meaning and message for the contemporary Muslim Koran.<br />
</span><span title="Buku berikutnya yang Rahman hasilkan pada periode Chicago ini ialah Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intelectual Tradition.">Rahman's next book is produced in Chicago this period is Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition. </span><span title="Buku ini sangat jelas memperlihatkan intensitas Rahman dalam menata masa depan Islam dan umatnya.">This book very clearly shows the intensity of Rahman in laying out the future of Islam and Muslims. </span><span title="Dengan demikian, buku ini tidak melulu membahas Islam historis yang tidak memberikan solusi kongkrit bagi pembangunan umat Islam dan bekal untuk umat Islam dalam menghadapi periode modern.">Thus, this book not only discusses the historical Islam that does not provide concrete solutions for development and provision Muslims for Muslims in the face of the modern period. </span><span title="Berikutnya ialah buku yang berjudul Helath and Medicine in Islamic Tradition, buku ini berusaha menangkap kaitan organis antara Islam sebagai sebuah sistem kepercayaan dan Islam sebagai sebuah tradisi pengobatan manusia.">Next is a book called Helath and Medicine in the Islamic Tradition, this book attempts to capture the organic link between Islam as a belief system and Islam as a tradition of human treatment.<br />
</span><span title="Setelah mengkaji perkembangan pemikiran Rahman yang didasarkan pada buku-buku yang ia hasilkan sepanjang karir intelektualitasnya, maka dapat dikatakan bahwa Rahman mengalami perubahan concern pemikiran serta kajiannya.">After reviewing the development of thinking Rahman based on books that he produced throughout his intellectual career, it can be said that Rahman had a change of thought and study concerns. </span><span title="Perubahan yang cukup signifikan ini disebabkan oleh kesadaran Rahman bahwa Islam dewasa ini tengah menghadapi krisis yang sebagian akarnya terdapat dalam Islam sejarah, pengaruh-pengaruh Barat dengan tantangan-tantangan modernitasnya, kemudian membuatnya berupaya membuat atau merumuskan soluai terhadap krisis tersebut (Amal, 1996: 148">Significant change is caused by Rahman awareness that Islam today is facing a crisis that there are some roots in the history of Islam, Western influences with the challenges of modernity, then make it seeks to create or formulate soluai to the crisis (Amal, 1996: 148 </span><span title="-149).">-149).<br />
</span><span title="Secara keseluruhan buku-buku yang Rahman hasilkan berjumlah sepuluh buah.">Overall, the books that Rahman produced amounted to ten pieces. </span><span title="Namun demikian, bukan berarti bahwa Fazlur Rahman hanya menghasilkan buku-buku an sich.">However, it does not mean that Fazlur Rahman produce books only an sich. </span><span title="Sepanjang karir intelektualitasnya, doctor lulusan Oxford University tersebut menulis pelbagai artikel di beberapa jurnal ilmiah dan sebagian dari artikel-artikel tersebut dikumpulkan menjadi beberapa buku.">Throughout his intellectual career, the doctor is a graduate of Oxford University wrote various articles in several scientific journals and some of the articles were collected into several books. </span><span title="Adapun buku-buku yang dihasilkan olehnya ialah sebagai berikut.">As for the books produced by him is as follows.<br />
<br />
</span><span title="Avicenna’s Psycology">Avicenna's Psycology<br />
</span><span title="Propecy in Islam: Philosophy and Ortodoxy">Propecy in Islam: Philosophy and Ortodoxy<br />
</span><span title="Avicennas's De Anima, being the Psycological Part of Kitab al Shifa">Avicennas's De Anima, being the Psycological Part of Kitab al Shifa<br />
</span><span title="The Philosophy of Mulla Shadra">The Philosophy of Mulla Sadra<br />
</span><span title="Islamic Methodology in History">Islamic Methodology in History<br />
</span><span title="Islam">Islam<br />
</span><span title="Major Times of the Qur’an">Major Times of the Qur'an<br />
</span><span title="Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intelectual Tradition">Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition<br />
</span><span title="Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism">Revival and Reform in Islam: A Study of Islamic Fundamentalism<br />
</span><span title="Health and Medicine in Islamic Tradition">Health and Medicine in the Islamic Tradition</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-22010377372175968732011-11-24T02:53:00.000-08:002011-11-24T02:53:11.182-08:00Gusdur, Mujaddid Thinkers from Indonesia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://matanews.com/wp-content/uploads/gusdur1.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="223" src="http://matanews.com/wp-content/uploads/gusdur1.jpg" width="320" /></a></div><br />
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<b>Abdurrahman Wahid</b>, born <b>Abdurrahman Addakhil</b><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-0"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-0"><span> </span><span></span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-1"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-1"><span></span><span></span></a></sup>(7 September 1940 – 30 December 2009), colloquially known as <span class="unicode"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Id-Gusdur.ogg" title="About this sound"><img alt="About this sound" height="11" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg/11px-Loudspeaker.svg.png" width="11" /></a> <a class="internal" href="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Id-Gusdur.ogg" title="Id-Gusdur.ogg"><b>Gus Dur</b></a> <small class="metadata audiolinkinfo" style="cursor: help;">(<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" title="Wikipedia:Media help"><span style="cursor: help;">help</span></a>·<a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Id-Gusdur.ogg" title="File:Id-Gusdur.ogg"><span style="cursor: help;">info</span></a>)</small></span>, was an <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesian</a> Muslim religious and political leader who served as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_Indonesia" title="President of Indonesia">President of Indonesia</a> from 1999 to 2001. The long-time president of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahdlatul_Ulama" title="Nahdlatul Ulama">Nahdlatul Ulama</a> and the founder of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Awakening_Party" title="National Awakening Party">National Awakening Party</a> (PKB), Wahid was the first elected president of Indonesia after <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Suharto" title="Fall of Suharto">the resignation of Suharto</a> in 1998.<br />
Like many <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_name#Naming_forms" title="Indonesian name">Indonesian names</a>, "Abdurrahman Wahid" does not contain a <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_name" title="Family name">family name</a>. The name "Wahid" is <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronymic" title="Patronymic">patronymic</a>. His popular nickname <b>Gus Dur</b>, is derifed from <i>Gus</i>, a common honorific for a son of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyai" title="Kyai">kyai</a>, from short-form of <i>bagus</i> ('handsome lads' in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Javanese_language" title="Javanese language">Javanese language</a><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-2"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup>); and <i>Dur</i>, short-form of his name, Abdurrahman.<br />
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<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_life">Early life</span></h2><div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 172px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abdurrahman_Wahid_youth.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="275" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Abdurrahman_Wahid_youth.jpg/170px-Abdurrahman_Wahid_youth.jpg" width="170" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Abdurrahman_Wahid_youth.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Abdurrahman Wahid in his youth</div></div></div>Abdurrahman ad-Dakhil Wahid was born on the fourth day of the eighth month of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Islamic calendar</a> in 1940 in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jombang_Regency" title="Jombang Regency">Jombang</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Java" title="East Java">East Java</a> to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wahid_Hasyim" title="Wahid Hasyim">Abdul Wahid Hasyim</a> and Siti Solichah. This led to a belief that he was born on 4 August; instead, using the Islamic calendar to mark his birth date meant that he was actually born on 4 <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sha%27aban" title="Sha'aban">Sha'aban</a>, equivalent to 7 September 1940. He was named after <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_ar-Rahman_I" title="Abd ar-Rahman I">Abd ar-Rahman I</a> of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> who brought Islam to Spain and was thus nicknamed "ad-Dakhil" ("the conqueror"). His name is stylized in the traditional Arabic naming system as "Abdurrahman, son of Wahid".<br />
He was the firstborn out of his five siblings, and Wahid was born into a very prestigious family in the East Java Muslim community. His paternal grandfather, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hasyim_Asy%27ari" title="Hasyim Asy'ari">Hasyim Asy'ari</a> was the founder of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahdlatul_Ulama" title="Nahdlatul Ulama">Nahdlatul Ulama</a> (NU) while his maternal grandfather, Bisri Syansuri was the first Muslim educator to introduce classes for women.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-3"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> Wahid's father, Wahid Hasyim, was involved in the Nationalist Movement and would go on to be Indonesia's first Minister of Religious Affairs.<br />
In 1944, Wahid moved from Jombang to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jakarta" title="Jakarta">Jakarta</a> where his father was involved with the Consultative Council of Indonesian Muslims (Masyumi), an organization established by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Imperial Japanese Army</a> which occupied Indonesia at the time. After the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_Declaration_of_Independence" title="Indonesian Declaration of Independence">Indonesian Declaration of Independence</a> on 17 August 1945, Wahid moved back to Jombang and remained there during the fight for independence from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netherlands" title="Netherlands">Netherlands</a> during the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_National_Revolution" title="Indonesian National Revolution">Indonesian National Revolution</a>. At the end of the war in 1949, Wahid moved to Jakarta as his father had received appointment as Minister of Religious Affairs. Wahid went about his education in Jakarta, going to KRIS Primary School before moving to Matraman Perwari Primary School. Wahid was also encouraged to read non-Muslim books, magazines, and newspapers by his father to further broaden his horizons.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-4"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup> Wahid stayed in Jakarta with his family even after his father's removal as Minister of Religious Affairs in 1952. In April 1953, Wahid's father died after being involved in a car crash.<br />
In 1954, Wahid began Junior High School. That year, he failed to graduate to the next year and was forced to repeat. His mother then made the decision to send Wahid to <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yogyakarta_%28city%29" title="Yogyakarta (city)">Yogyakarta</a> to continue his education. In 1957, after graduating from Junior High School, Wahid moved to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magelang" title="Magelang">Magelang</a> to begin Muslim Education at <i>Pesantren</i> (Muslim School) Tegalrejo. He completed the <i>pesantren's</i> course in two years instead of the usual four. In 1959, Wahid moved back to Jombang to <i>Pesantren Tambakberas</i>. There, while continuing his own education, Wahid also received his first job as a teacher and later on as headmaster of a <i><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrasah" title="Madrasah">madrasah</a></i> affiliated with the <i>Pesantren</i>. Wahid also found employment as a journalist for magazines such as <i>Horizon</i> and <i>Majalah Budaya Jaya</i>.<br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Overseas_education">Overseas education</span></h2>In 1963, Wahid received a scholarship from the Ministry of Religious Affairs to study at <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Azhar_University" title="Al Azhar University">Al Azhar University</a> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, Egypt. He left for Egypt in November 1963. Unable to provide evidence to certify that he spoke <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>, Wahid was told when arriving that he would have to take a remedial class in the language before enrolling at the University's Higher Institute for Islamic and Arabic studies.<br />
Instead of attending classes, Wahid spent 1964 enjoying life in Egypt; watching European and American movies as well indulging in his hobby of watching <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football" title="Association football">football</a>. Wahid was also involved with the Association of Indonesian Students and became a journalist for the association's magazine. After passing the remedial Arabic examination, he finally began studies at the Higher Institute for Islamic and Arabic Studies in 1965, but was disappointed. He had already studied many of the texts offered at the Institute in Java and disapproved of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rote_learning" title="Rote learning">rote learning</a> method used by the University.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-5"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> Wahid attended Karachi Grammar School in Pakistan. In Egypt, Wahid found employment with the Indonesian Embassy. It was during his stint with the Embassy that coup attempt was launched by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30_September_Movement" title="30 September Movement">30 September Movement</a>, which the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communist_Party_of_Indonesia" title="Communist Party of Indonesia">Communist Party of Indonesia</a> was accused of leading. With <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostrad" title="Kostrad">Army Stretegic Reserves</a> commander Major General <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suharto" title="Suharto">Suharto</a> taking control of the situation in Jakarta, a crackdown against suspected communists was initiated. The Indonesian Embassy in Egypt was ordered to conduct an investigation into the political views of university students. This order was passed to Wahid, who was charged with writing the reports.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-6"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Wahid's displeasure at the method of education and his work following the coup attempt distracted him from his studies. Wahid sought and received another scholarship at the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Baghdad" title="University of Baghdad">University of Baghdad</a> and moved to Iraq. There Wahid continued his involvement with the Association of Indonesian Students as well as with writing journalistic pieces to be read in Indonesia.<br />
After completing his education at the University of Baghdad in 1970, Wahid went to the Netherlands to continue his education. Wahid wanted to attend <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a> but was disappointed as there was little recognition for the studies that he had undertaken at the University of Baghdad. From the Netherlands, Wahid went to Germany and France before returning to Indonesia in 1971.<br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_career">Early career</span></h2>Wahid returned to Jakarta expecting that in a year's time, he would be abroad again to study at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McGill_University" title="McGill University">McGill University</a> in Canada. He kept himself busy by joining the Institute for Economic and Social Research, Education and Information (LP3ES),<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-7"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> an organization which consisted of intellectuals with progressive Muslims and social-democratic views. LP3ES established the magazine <i>Prisma</i> and Wahid became one of the main contributors to the magazine. Whilst working as a contributor for LP3ES, Wahid also conducted tours to <i>pesantrens</i> and <i>madrasahs</i> across Java. It was a time when <i>pesantren</i> were desperate to gain state funding by adopting state-endorsed curricula and Wahid was concerned that the traditional values of the <i>pesantren</i> were being damaged because of this change. Wahid was also concerned with the poverty of the <i>pesantren</i> which he saw during his tours. At the same time as it was encouraging <i>pesantren</i> to adopt state-endorsed curricula, the Government was also encouraging <i>pesantren</i> as agents for change and to help assist the Government in the economic development of Indonesia. It was at this time that Wahid finally decided to drop plans for overseas studies in favor of promoting the development of the <i>pesantren</i>.<br />
Wahid continued his career as a journalist, writing for the magazine <i>Tempo</i> and <i>Kompas</i>, a leading Indonesian newspaper. His articles were well-received and he began to develop a reputation as a social commentator. Wahid's popularity was such that at this time he was invited to give lectures and seminars, obliging him to travel back and forth between Jakarta and Jombang where he now lived with his family.<br />
Despite having a successful career up to that point, Wahid still found it hard to make ends meet and he worked to earn extra income by selling peanuts and delivering ice to be used for his wife's <i>Es Lilin</i> (popsicle) business.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-8"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1974, Wahid found extra employment in Jombang as a Muslim Legal Studies teacher at Pesantren Tambakberas and soon developed a good reputation. A year later, Wahid added to his workload as a teacher of Kitab Al Hikam, a classical text of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">sufism</a>.<br />
In 1977, Wahid joined the Hasyim Asyari University as Dean of the Faculty of Islamic Beliefs and Practices. Again Wahid excelled in his job and the University wanted to Wahid to teach extra subjects such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedagogy" title="Pedagogy">pedagogy</a>, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>, and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missiology" title="Missiology">missiology</a>. However, his excellence caused some resentment from within the ranks of university and Wahid was blocked from teaching the subjects. Whilst undertaking all these ventures Wahid also regularly delivered speeches during <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a> to the Muslim community in Jombang.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Early_involvement_with_NU">Early involvement with NU</span></h3>Wahid's family background meant that sooner or later, he would be asked to play an active role in the running of <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nahdlatul_Ulama" title="Nahdlatul Ulama">Nahdlatul Ulama</a> (NU). This ran contrary to Wahid's aspirations of becoming a public intellectual and he had twice rejected offers to join the NU Religious Advisory Council. Nevertheless, Wahid finally chose to join the Council when his own grandfather, Bisri Syansuri gave him the third offer.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-9"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> In taking this job, Wahid also made the decision to move from Jombang to Jakarta and to permanently reside there. As a member of the Religious Advisory Council, Wahid envisioned himself as a reformer of NU.<br />
At this time, Wahid also had his first political experience. In the lead-up to the 1982 Legislative Elections, Wahid campaigned for the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Development_Party" title="United Development Party">United Development Party</a> (PPP), an Islamist Party which was formed as a result of a merger of four Islamist parties including NU. Wahid recalled that the Government actively disrupted PPP's campaigns by arresting people like himself.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-10"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> However, Wahid was always able to secure his release, having developed connections in high places with the likes of General <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardus_Benjamin_Moerdani" title="Leonardus Benjamin Moerdani">Benny Moerdani</a>.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Reforming_NU">Reforming NU</span></h3>By this time, many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material in the vicinity of this tag may use weasel words or too-vague attribution. from July 2010">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> viewed the NU as a stagnant organization. After careful discussion, the Religious Advisory Council finally formed a Team of Seven (which included Wahid) to tackle the issues of reform and to help revitalize the NU. For some members of the NU, reform in the organization involved a change of leadership. On 2 May 1982, a group of high-ranking NU officials met with NU Chairman <a class="new" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Idham_Chalid&action=edit&redlink=1" title="Idham Chalid (page does not exist)">Idham Chalid</a> and asked for his resignation. Idham, who had guided the NU in the transition from <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukarno" title="Sukarno">Sukarno</a> to Suharto resisted at first but bowed down to pressure. On 6 May 1982, Wahid heard of Idham's decision to resign and approached him saying that the demands being made for him to resign were unconstitutional. With urging from Wahid, Idham withdrew his resignation and Wahid, together with the Team of Seven was able to negotiate a compromise between Idham and those who had asked for his resignation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-11"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
In 1983, Suharto was re-elected to a fourth term as President by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Consultative_Assembly" title="People's Consultative Assembly">People's Consultative Assembly</a> (MPR) and began taking steps to establish the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pancasila_Indonesia" title="Pancasila Indonesia">Pancasila</a> state ideology as the sole basis for all organizations. From June 1983 to October 1983, Wahid was part of a team which was commissioned to prepare the NU's response to this issue. Wahid consulted texts such as the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> for justification and finally, in October 1983, concluded that the NU should accept Pancasila as its ideology.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-12"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup> To further revitalize the NU, Wahid was also successful in securing its withdrawal from PPP and party politicsto allow it focus on social matters instead of hampering itself by being involved in politics.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Election_to_Chairmanship_and_first_term_as_Chairman">Election to Chairmanship and first term as Chairman</span></h3>Wahid's reforms had made him extremely popular within the ranks of NU. By the time of the 1984 National Congress, many began to state their intentions to nominate Wahid as the new Chairman of NU. Wahid accepted the nomination, provided that he had the power to choose who would be on his leadership team. Wahid was elected as the new Chairman of NU during the National Congress. However, his stipulation of choosing his own team was not honored. The last day of the Congress had begun with Wahid's list of team members being approved by high-ranking NU officials including outgoing Chairman Idham. Wahid had gone to the Committee in charge of running the Congress and handed in his list which was to be announced later. However, the Committee in question was against Idham and announced a totally different list of people. Wahid was outraged but was pressured to accept the changes made.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-13"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Wahid's ascendancy to the NU Chairmanship was seen positively by Suharto and his <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orde_Baru" title="Orde Baru">New Order</a> regime. Wahid's acceptance of Pancasila along with his moderate image won him favor among Government ranks. In 1985, Suharto made Wahid a Pancasila indoctrinator.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-14"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1987, Wahid showed further support for the regime by criticizing PPP in the lead-up to the 1987 Legislative Elections and further strengthening Suharto's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golkar" title="Golkar">Golkar</a> Party. His reward came in the form of a membership of the MPR. Although he was viewed with favor by the regime, Wahid criticised the Government over the Kedung Ombo Dam project that was funded by the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a>. Although this somewhat soured the cordial relationships that Wahid had with the Government, Suharto was still keen on getting political support from NU.<br />
During his first term as Chairman of NU, Wahid focused on reform of the <i>pesantren</i> education system and was successful in increasing the quality of <i>pesantren</i> education system so that it can match up with secular schools.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-15"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1987, Wahid also set up study groups in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Probolinggo" title="Probolinggo">Probolinggo</a>, East Java to provide a forum for like-minded individuals within NU to discuss and provide interpretations to Muslim texts.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-16"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> Critics accused Wahid of wishing to replace the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> Muslim greeting of "<i>assalamualaikum</i>" with the secular greeting of "<i>selamat pagi</i>", which means <i>good morning</i> in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a>.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Second_term_as_Chairman_and_opposing_the_New_Order">Second term as Chairman and opposing the New Order</span></h3>Wahid was re-elected to a second term as Chairman of NU at the 1989 National Congress. By this time, Suharto, embroiled in a political battle with <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABRI" title="ABRI">ABRI</a> began to ingratiate himself with the Muslim constituency so as to win their support. This venture reached a turning point in December 1990 with the formation of the Union of Indonesian Intellectual Muslims (ICMI). This organization was backed by Suharto, chaired by <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BJ_Habibie" title="BJ Habibie">BJ Habibie</a> and included Muslim intellectuals such as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amien_Rais" title="Amien Rais">Amien Rais</a> and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nurcholish_Madjid" title="Nurcholish Madjid">Nurcholish Madjid</a> as its members. In 1991, various members of ICMI asked Wahid to join. Wahid declined because he thought that ICMI encouraged <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">sectarianism</a> and that it was mainly a means by which Suharto manoeuvred to remain powerful.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-17"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> In 1991, Wahid countered ICMI by forming the Democracy Forum, an organization which contained of 45 intellectuals from various religious and social communities. The organization was seen as a threat by the Government which moved to break up meetings held by the Democracy Forum during the run-up to the 1992 Legislative Elections approached.<br />
In March 1992, Wahid planned to have a Great Assembly to celebrate the 66th anniversary of the founding of NU and to reiterate the organization's support for Pancasila. Wahid had planned for the event to be attended by at least one million NU members. However, Suharto moved to block the event, ordering policemen to turn back busloads of NU members as they arrived in Jakarta. Nevertheless, the event managed to attract 200,000 attendants. After the event, Wahid wrote a letter of protest to Suharto saying that NU had not been given a chance to display a brand of Islam that was open, fair, and tolerant.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-18"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> During his second term as Chairman of NU, Wahid's liberal ideas had begun to turn many supporters sour. As Chairman, Wahid continued to push for <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interfaith" title="Interfaith">inter-faith dialogue</a> and even accepted an invitation to visit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> in October 1994.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-19"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Third_term_as_Chairman_and_the_lead-up_to_Reformasi">Third term as Chairman and the lead-up to <i>Reformasi</i></span></h3>As the 1994 National Congress approached, Wahid nominated himself for a third term as Chairman. Hearing this, Suharto wanted to make sure that Wahid was not elected. In the weeks leading up to the Congress, Suharto's supporters, such as Habibie and <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmoko" title="Harmoko">Harmoko</a> campaigned against Wahid's re-election. When it came time for the National Congress, the site for the Congress was tightly guarded by ABRI in an act of intimidation.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-20"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup> Despite this, and attempts to bribe NU members to vote against him, Wahid came through and was re-elected as NU Chairman for a third term. During this term, Wahid began to move closer towards a political alliance with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megawati_Sukarnoputri" title="Megawati Sukarnoputri">Megawati Sukarnoputri</a> from the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_Democratic_Party" title="Indonesian Democratic Party">Indonesian Democratic Party</a> (PDI). Capitalizing on her father's legacy, Megawati had a lot of popularity and intended to put political and moral pressure on Suharto's regime. Wahid advised Megawati to be cautious and to avoid being nominated as President during the 1998 MPR General Session. Megawati ignored this advice and paid the price in July 1996 when her PDI headquarters were taken over by supporters of Government-backed PDI Chairman, Suryadi.<br />
Seeing what happened to Megawati, Wahid thought that his best option now was to retreat politically by getting himself back in favor with the Government. In November 1996, Wahid and Suharto met for the first time since Wahid's re-election to the NU Chairmanship and this was followed over the next few months by meetings with various Government people who in 1994 had attempted to block Wahid's re-election.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-21"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup> At the same time however, Wahid kept his options for reform open and in December 1996, had a meeting with <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amien_Rais" title="Amien Rais">Amien Rais</a>, an ICMI member who had grown critical of the Regime.<br />
July 1997 saw the beginning of the <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_Financial_Crisis" title="Asian Financial Crisis">Asian Financial Crisis</a>. Suharto began to lose control of the situation and just as he was being pushed to step up the reform movement with Megawati and Amien, Wahid suffered a stroke in January 1998. From his bed in the hospital, Wahid continued to see the situation worsen with Suharto's re-election to a seventh term as President and the student protests which would turn into riots in May 1998 after the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisakti_shootings" title="Trisakti shootings">killing of four students</a> at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trisakti_University" title="Trisakti University">Trisakti University</a>. On 19 May 1998, Wahid, together with eight prominent leaders from the Muslim community were summoned to Suharto's residence. Suharto presented the concept of a Reform Committee which he had begun to propose at the time. All nine rejected Suharto's offer to join the Reform Committee. Wahid maintained a more moderate stance with Suharto and called on the protesting to stop to see if Suharto was going to implement his promise.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-22"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> This displeased Amien who was the most vocal out of Suharto's opposition at this time. Nevertheless, there was no stopping Suharto's fall and on 21 May 1998, he announced his resignation. Vice President Habibie now ascended to the Presidency.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Formation_of_PKB_and_the_Ciganjur_statement">Formation of PKB and the <i>Ciganjur</i> statement</span></h3>One of the immediate effects of Suharto's fall was the formation of new political parties. Under Suharto's regime, political parties had been limited to just three; Golkar, PPP, and PDI. Now with his fall, new political parties were formed, the most prominent of which was Amien's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Mandate_Party" title="National Mandate Party">National Mandate Party</a> (PAN) and Megawati's <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_Democratic_Party-Struggle" title="Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle">Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle</a> (PDI-P). In June 1998, many from within the NU community began pressuring Wahid to form a new political party. Wahid did not warm up to the idea immediately, thinking that this would result in a political party which only catered to one religion and not willing to overrule his own decision to take NU out of politics. By July 1998 however, he began to warm up to the idea, thinking that establishing a political party was the only way to challenge the organizationally strong Golkar in an election. With that in mind, Wahid approved of the formation of PKB and became the Chairman of its Advisory Council with Matori Abdul Djalil as Party Chairman. Although it was clearly dominated by NU members, Wahid promoted PKB as a party that is non-sectarian and open to all members of society.<br />
As opposition to the Government, Wahid, together with Megawati and Amien were willing to adopt a moderate stance towards Habibie's Government; preferring instead to wait for the 1999 Legislative Elections.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-23"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, in November 1998, in a meeting at his residence in the Jakarta suburb of Ciganjur, Wahid, together with Megawati, Amien, and Sultan <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamengkubuwono_X" title="Hamengkubuwono X">Hamengkubuwono X</a> reiterated their commitment to Reform. On 7 February 1999, PKB officially declared Wahid as their Presidential candidate.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="1999_elections_and_MPR_General_Session">1999 elections and MPR General Session</span></h3><div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesian_legislative_election,_1999" title="Indonesian legislative election, 1999">Indonesian legislative election, 1999</a></div><div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width: 202px;"><a class="image" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amien_Rais_and_Abdurrahman_Wahid,_1999.jpg"><img alt="" class="thumbimage" height="148" src="http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Amien_Rais_and_Abdurrahman_Wahid%2C_1999.jpg/200px-Amien_Rais_and_Abdurrahman_Wahid%2C_1999.jpg" width="200" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a class="internal" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Amien_Rais_and_Abdurrahman_Wahid,_1999.jpg" title="Enlarge"><img alt="" height="11" src="http://bits.wikimedia.org/skins-1.18/common/images/magnify-clip.png" width="15" /></a></div>Amien Rais and Abdurrahman Wahid converse during a session of the MPR.</div></div></div>In June 1999, Wahid's PKB entered the legislative elections. PKB won 12% of the votes with Megawati's PDI–P winning the legislative elections with 33% of the votes. With her party decisively winning the Legislative Elections, Megawati expected to win the Presidency against Habibie at the MPR General Session. However, PDI-P did not have complete majority and formed a loose alliance with PKB. In July however, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amien_Rais" title="Amien Rais">Amien Rais</a> would form the Central Axis, a coalition of Muslim parties.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-24"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> The Central Axis then began to consider nominating Wahid as a third candidate in the Presidential race and PKB's commitment towards PDI-P began to waver.<br />
In October 1999, the MPR convened and Wahid threw his support behind Amien who was elected as the Chairman of MPR. On 7 October 1999, Amien and the Central Axis, who now had PKB on their side, officially nominated Wahid as a Presidential Candidate.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-25"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> On 19 October 1999, the MPR rejected Habibie's accountability speech and Habibie withdrew himself from the Presidential race. In the hours that followed, <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akbar_Tanjung" title="Akbar Tanjung">Akbar Tanjung</a>, Chairman of Golkar and Head of the <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Representative_Council" title="People's Representative Council">People's Representative Council</a> (DPR) made it clear that Golkar would support Wahid in his bid for the Presidency. On 20 October 1999, the MPR convened and began electing for a new President. Wahid was then elected as Indonesia's fourth President with 373 votes to Megawati's 313 votes.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-26"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
Displeased that their candidate had not won the Presidency, Megawati's supporters began to riot and Wahid realized that for this to stop, Megawati had to be elected as Vice President. After convincing General <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiranto" title="Wiranto">Wiranto</a> not to compete in the Vice Presidential elections and getting the PKB to support Megawati for this election, Wahid was successful in convincing the demoralized Megawati to compete. On the 21 October 1999, Megawati competed in the Vice Presidential election and defeated PPP's <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamzah_Haz" title="Hamzah Haz">Hamzah Haz</a>.<br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Religious_views">Religious views</span></h3>Wahid said:<br />
<blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> All religions insist on peace. From this we might think that the religious struggle for peace is simple ... but it is not. The deep problem is that people use religion wrongly in pursuit of victory and triumph. This sad fact then leads to conflict with people who have different beliefs.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-56"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-56"><span>[</span>57<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
</div></blockquote>In a 2002 interview with Australian television program, "Foreign Correspondent", Wahid explained his respect for Israel and posed a challenging "correction" to be addressed by his fellow Muslims:<br />
<blockquote class="templatequote"> <div> Israel believes in God. While we have a diplomatic relationship and recognizing diplomatically China and Russia, which are atheist states, then it's strange that we don't acknowledge Israel. This is the thing that we have to correct within Islam.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-57"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-57"><span>[</span>58<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
</div></blockquote>Wahid was also an advocate of <a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interfaith_dialogue" title="Interfaith dialogue">interfaith dialogue</a> during his lifetime and for many years sat on the Board of World Religious Leaders for <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Elijah_Interfaith_Institute" title="The Elijah Interfaith Institute">The Elijah Interfaith Institute</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-58"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-58"><span>[</span>59<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Personal_life">Personal life</span></h2>Wahid was married to <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinta_Nuriyah" title="Sinta Nuriyah">Sinta Nuriyah</a> with whom he had four daughters: Alissa Qotrunnada Munawaroh, Zannuba Arifah Chafsoh (popularly known as <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yenny_Wahid" title="Yenny Wahid">Yenny Wahid</a>), Annita Hayatunnufus, and Inayah Wulandari.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-59"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-59"><span>[</span>60<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
<h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Death">Death</span></h3>In late December 2009 Wahid asked to be taken to visit <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rembang_Regency" title="Rembang Regency">Rembang</a> (situated in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Java" title="Central Java">Central Java</a>) and Jombang despite his poor health. He had previously been admitted into a hospital just before he left Jakarta. During his visit to Rembang and Jombang his health worsened and Wahid was admitted into a hospital in Jombang on 24 December 2009. Following his return to Jakarta the next day, he was admitted into Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital in <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Jakarta" title="Central Jakarta">Central Jakarta</a> in order to undergo <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialysis" title="Dialysis">dialysis</a>.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-60"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-60"><span>[</span>61<span>]</span></a></sup> He underwent dental surgery on 28 December after complaining of toothache.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-61"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-61"><span>[</span>62<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-62"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-62"><span>[</span>63<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-63"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-63"><span>[</span>64<span>]</span></a></sup> Wahid died on 30 December at approximately 6:45 p.m. local time (<a class="mw-redirect" href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTC%2B7" title="UTC+7">UTC+7</a>) after his condition deteriorated because of complications from kidney disorders, heart disease and diabetes. President <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Susilo_Bambang_Yudhoyono" title="Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono">Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono</a> visited Wahid shortly before his death.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-64"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-64"><span>[</span>65<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-65"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-65"><span>[</span>66<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-66"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-66"><span>[</span>67<span>]</span></a></sup> A <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_funeral" title="State funeral">state funeral</a> was held for Wahid on 31 December, and flags were flown at <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Half-staff" title="Half-staff">half-staff</a> for seven days.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-67"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-67"><span>[</span>68<span>]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-68"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-68"><span>[</span>69<span>]</span></a></sup> He was buried next to the graves of his grandfather and parents at his birthplace, Jombang, East Java.<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69"><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid#cite_note-69"><span>[</span>70<span>]</span></a></sup><br />
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<sup class="reference" id="cite_ref-69"><span>Sourches: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid </span></sup><br />
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</div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-58724040942580826552011-11-24T02:41:00.000-08:002011-11-24T02:41:20.970-08:00Strengthening ACIS in Islamic Indonesia<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="http://www.asianews.it/files/img/indonesia_-_islam_people.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://www.asianews.it/files/img/indonesia_-_islam_people.jpg" width="255" /></a></div><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps"></span> <span class="hps"> </span></span><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">YOGYAKARTA</span> <span class="hps">-</span> <span class="hps">Forum</span> <span class="hps">Annual Conference</span> <span class="hps">meeting of</span> <span class="hps">Islamic Studies</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span class="">ACIS</span><span class="">)</span> <span class="hps">has entered</span> <span class="hps">the implementation</span> <span class="hps">to</span><span>-11.</span> <span class="hps">Much has been</span> <span class="hps">achieved mainly</span> <span class="hps">in the development of</span> <span class="hps">studies</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">Islamic studies</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">Looking ahead</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">ACIS</span> <span class="hps">is directed</span> <span class="hps">to continue to</span> <span class="hps">play a role</span> <span class="hps">in building</span> <span class="hps">the people</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">nation</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">Professor</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">Dean of the</span> <span class="hps">Faculty of Science</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">Technology</span> <span class="hps">UIN</span> <span class="hps">Sunan</span> <span class="hps">Kalijaga</span> <span class="hps">Yogyakarta</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">Prof.</span> <span class="hps">Dr.</span> <span class="hps">Akh</span> <span class="hps">Minhadji</span> <span class="hps">admitted</span> <span class="hps">happy</span> <span class="hps">with the progress of</span> <span class="hps">Islamic studies</span> <span class="hps">at a number</span> <span class="hps">of Islamic</span> <span class="hps">universities</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">He</span> <span class="hps">even refers to</span> <span class="hps">what has gone</span> <span class="hps">before</span> <span class="hps">is able to reflect</span> <span class="hps">expectations</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">One that</span> <span class="hps">should be appreciated</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">he</span> <span class="hps">continued</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">ie</span> <span class="hps">more incentive to</span> <span class="hps">scholars</span> <span class="hps">conducting research</span> <span class="hps">field</span> <span class="hps">related to the condition</span> <span class="hps">of Muslims in</span> <span class="hps">Indonesia</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">This is an</span> <span class="hps">interesting</span> <span class="hps">change</span><span>, given</span> <span class="hps">previous</span> <span class="hps">research more</span> <span class="hps">directed</span> <span class="hps">towards the</span> <span class="hps">study of texts</span><span>, norms</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">or</span> <span class="hps">values</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">But now</span> <span class="hps">is different</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">the reality of</span> <span class="hps">society that</span> <span class="hps">shot.</span> <span class="hps">Color and</span> <span class="hps">context</span> <span class="hps">of Islamic studies</span> <span class="hps">also increasingly</span> <span class="hps">diverse</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">extensive</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">When speaking of</span> <span class="hps">the Indonesian Islamic</span> <span class="hps">community</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">he</span> <span class="hps">continued</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">it can not be</span> <span class="hps">separated from the</span> <span class="hps">traditions</span> <span class="hps">that exist in</span> <span class="hps">each community.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps atn">''</span><span>What</span> <span class="hps">to do with</span> <span class="hps">Islam</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">so</span> <span class="hps">this is what</span> <span class="hps">had been</span> <span class="hps">the object</span> <span class="hps">of research</span><span>,</span><span class="atn">''</span><span>said</span> <span class="hps">Minhadji</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">some time ago</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">A number</span> <span class="hps">of research</span> <span class="hps">and then</span> <span class="hps">presented</span> <span class="hps">during the</span> <span class="hps">forum</span> <span class="hps">to the</span> <span class="hps">ACIS</span><span>-11</span> <span class="hps">in</span> <span class="hps">Louth</span><span>.</span><br />
<br />
<span class="hps">From</span> <span class="hps">his view</span><span>,</span> <span class="hps">the results of</span> <span class="hps">such research</span> <span class="hps">is essential</span> <span class="hps">in order to</span> <span class="hps">provide an overview</span> <span class="hps">regarding</span> <span class="hps">the relationship</span> <span class="hps">between</span> <span class="hps">local</span> <span class="hps">traditions</span> <span class="hps">and</span> <span class="hps">Islamic</span> <span class="hps">teachings</span><span>.</span> <span class="hps">According</span> <span class="hps">Minhadji</span> <span class="hps">that</span> <span class="hps">at the meeting</span> <span class="hps">this time</span> <span class="hps">acting as</span> <span class="hps">ACIS</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps">convener</span> <span class="hps">/</span> <span class="hps atn">(</span><span>pengampu</span> <span class="hps">expert</span><span>)</span><span>, it is not</span> <span class="hps">possible</span> <span class="hps">without</span> <span class="hps">berislam</span> <span class="hps">accommodate</span> <span class="hps">reality</span><span class="">, in this</span> <span class="hps">earlier</span> <span class="hps">tradition</span><span>.</span></span><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span>Sourches: </span></span> <span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span class="hps">REPUBLIKA.CO.ID</span><span>,</span></span></div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-5637253672859776657.post-30012232395333452332011-11-24T02:30:00.000-08:002011-11-24T02:30:27.652-08:00Austria Not Ready to Receive Public Islamic Presence<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on"><a href="http://hurryupharry.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/vienna2-e1276530648920.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="191" src="http://hurryupharry.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/vienna2-e1276530648920.jpg" width="320" /></a><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="REPUBLIKA.CO.ID,WINA - Austria merupakan salah satu negara Eropa yang mengakui Islam sebagi agama resmi negara."> </span></span><br />
<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="REPUBLIKA.CO.ID,WINA - Austria merupakan salah satu negara Eropa yang mengakui Islam sebagi agama resmi negara.">VIENNA - Austria is one European country that recognizes Islam as a state religion. </span><span title="Kendati demikian, masih terlihat ketidaksiapan masyarakat Austria dalam menerima keberadaan komunitas Muslim.">Nevertheless, still visible in the Austrian public unpreparedness to accept the existence of the Muslim community. </span><span title="Respon terhadap isu radikalisme dan burka merupakan bentuk ketidaksiapan itu.">The response to the issue of radicalism and that the burka is a form of unpreparedness.<br />
</span><span title="Pemimpin Partai Sayap Kanan Austria, Heinz-Christian Strache, menuturkan Austria seperti halnya negara Eropa lainnya menghadapi masalah terkait kehadiran para imigran Muslim asal Turki.">Austrian Right Wing Party leader, Heinz-Christian Strache, said Austria as well as other European countries face problems related to the presence of Muslim immigrants from Turkey. </span><span title="Menurutnya, lebih dari 50 persen imigran Muslim yang berasal dari Turki enggan berintegrasi dalam masyarakat Austria.">According to him, more than 50 percent of Muslim immigrants from Turkey are reluctant to integrate into Austrian society.<br />
</span><span title=""Mereka tidak berniat mempelajari bahasa dan budaya yang berlaku di Austria. Belum lagi soal kelompok radikal. Mereka menghambat pembangunan fondasi perdamaian dan demokrasi di Austria," kata dia seperti dikutip rt.com, Rabu (23/11).">"They do not intend to learn the language and culture prevailing in Austria. Not to mention the matter of radical groups. They inhibit the development of the foundations of peace and democracy in Austria," he said as quoted rt.com, Wednesday (23/11).<br />
</span><span title="Strache menyadari masyarakat Austria menghormati Islam.">Strache realize Austrian society respects Islam. </span><span title="Islam merupakan bagian dari agama dunia.">Islam is part of the world religions. </span><span title="Sayangnya, ada semacam tanda-tanda lahirnya kelompok radikal.">Unfortunately, there is a sign of the birth of radical groups. </span><span title="Itu tercermin dalam usaha untuk membangun menara Masjid dan kumandang adzan dengan pengeras suara.">That's reflected in the effort to build minarets and prayer with loudspeakers repercussion.<br />
</span><span title=""Mereka adalah tamu, tapi kebebasan beragama mereka dijamin. Sementara, di negara-negara Islam, kami umat Kristiani tidak mendapati kebebasan yang sama," kata dia.">"They are guests, but they are guaranteed freedom of religion. Meanwhile, in Islamic countries, we Christians do not have the same freedom," he said.<br />
</span><span title="Itulah sebabnya, kata Strache, masyarakat Austria perlu sensitif dengan perkembangan Islam.">That is why, said Strache, Austrian society need to be sensitive to the development of Islam. </span><span title="Sebab, persoalan ini juga menyangkut pelestarian budaya Eropa.">Therefore, this issue also involves the preservation of European culture. </span><span title=""Kita perlu menjaga budaya Eropa agar tidak menghilang secara politis dan demografis. Ini yang coba kami usahakan di Eropa," katanya.">"We need to keep the culture of Europe in order not to disappear politically and demographically. This is what we try try in Europe," he said.<br />
</span><span title="Terkait video game yang bermuatan Islamphobia, Strache mengutuk tindakan itu.">Related video game-laden traditional power structures, Strache condemned the action. </span><span title="Sebab, cara itu tidak dibenarkan.">Because, the way it is not justified. </span><span title=""Kita harus berpegang pada kebenaran," kata dia.">"We must stick to the truth," he said.<br />
</span><span title="Ironisnya, meski mengutuk aktivitas bernuansa Islamphobia, Strache justru mendukung larangan mengenakan burka bagi Muslimah di ruang publik.">Ironically, despite condemning the activities of traditional power structures nuanced, Strache nevertheless support a ban for Muslim women wearing the burka in public spaces. </span><span title="Menurutnya, larangan itu merujuk pada kenyataan bahwa setiap Muslimah tidak perlu menyembunyikan wajah mereka.">He said the ban was referred to the fact that every Muslim should not hide their faces.<br />
</span><span title=""Semua orang bebas untuk melakukan apa pun yang diinginkan. Dalam kasus burka, setiap Muslim harus berintegrasi dan beradaptasi dengan kondisi kita dan mengamati hukum kita. Dan, itulah yang kami harapkan dari mereka," pungkas dia.">"Everyone is free to do whatever you want. In the case of the burka, every Muslim must integrate and adapt to our conditions and observe our laws. And, that's what we expect of them," he added.</span></span><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title=""Semua orang bebas untuk melakukan apa pun yang diinginkan. Dalam kasus burka, setiap Muslim harus berintegrasi dan beradaptasi dengan kondisi kita dan mengamati hukum kita. Dan, itulah yang kami harapkan dari mereka," pungkas dia.">Sourches: </span></span><br />
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<span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title="REPUBLIKA.CO.ID,WINA - Austria merupakan salah satu negara Eropa yang mengakui Islam sebagi agama resmi negara.">REPUBLIKA.CO.ID, </span></span><span class="" id="result_box" lang="en"><span title=""Semua orang bebas untuk melakukan apa pun yang diinginkan. Dalam kasus burka, setiap Muslim harus berintegrasi dan beradaptasi dengan kondisi kita dan mengamati hukum kita. Dan, itulah yang kami harapkan dari mereka," pungkas dia."> </span></span><br />
</div>Islamic Studieshttp://www.blogger.com/profile/14328460734624403482noreply@blogger.com0